Técnica quirúrgica de resección de tumores del cuerpo carotideo implementada en el Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia y desenlaces post operatorios asociados
ílustraciones, graficas
- Autores:
-
Correa Gonzalez, Juliana Patricia
- Tipo de recurso:
- Fecha de publicación:
- 2023
- Institución:
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia
- Repositorio:
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia
- Idioma:
- spa
- OAI Identifier:
- oai:repositorio.unal.edu.co:unal/83937
- Palabra clave:
- 610 - Medicina y salud::617 - Cirugía, medicina regional, odontología, oftalmología, otología, audiología
Paraganglioma Extraadrenal
Paraganglioma, Extra-Adrenal
EXTIRPACION (CIRUGIA)
Excision (surgery)
Paraganglioma
Carotid body tumor
Clinical classification
Neurological complications
Surgery
Paraganglioma
Tumor del cuerpo carotídeo
Clasificación clínica
Complicaciones neurológicas
Cirugía
- Rights
- openAccess
- License
- Atribución-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional
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dc.title.spa.fl_str_mv |
Técnica quirúrgica de resección de tumores del cuerpo carotideo implementada en el Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia y desenlaces post operatorios asociados |
dc.title.translated.eng.fl_str_mv |
Surgical technique for resection of carotid body tumors implemented at the National University Hospital of Colombia and associated postoperative outcomes |
title |
Técnica quirúrgica de resección de tumores del cuerpo carotideo implementada en el Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia y desenlaces post operatorios asociados |
spellingShingle |
Técnica quirúrgica de resección de tumores del cuerpo carotideo implementada en el Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia y desenlaces post operatorios asociados 610 - Medicina y salud::617 - Cirugía, medicina regional, odontología, oftalmología, otología, audiología Paraganglioma Extraadrenal Paraganglioma, Extra-Adrenal EXTIRPACION (CIRUGIA) Excision (surgery) Paraganglioma Carotid body tumor Clinical classification Neurological complications Surgery Paraganglioma Tumor del cuerpo carotídeo Clasificación clínica Complicaciones neurológicas Cirugía |
title_short |
Técnica quirúrgica de resección de tumores del cuerpo carotideo implementada en el Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia y desenlaces post operatorios asociados |
title_full |
Técnica quirúrgica de resección de tumores del cuerpo carotideo implementada en el Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia y desenlaces post operatorios asociados |
title_fullStr |
Técnica quirúrgica de resección de tumores del cuerpo carotideo implementada en el Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia y desenlaces post operatorios asociados |
title_full_unstemmed |
Técnica quirúrgica de resección de tumores del cuerpo carotideo implementada en el Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia y desenlaces post operatorios asociados |
title_sort |
Técnica quirúrgica de resección de tumores del cuerpo carotideo implementada en el Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia y desenlaces post operatorios asociados |
dc.creator.fl_str_mv |
Correa Gonzalez, Juliana Patricia |
dc.contributor.advisor.none.fl_str_mv |
Zuñiga Pavia, Sergio |
dc.contributor.author.none.fl_str_mv |
Correa Gonzalez, Juliana Patricia |
dc.subject.ddc.spa.fl_str_mv |
610 - Medicina y salud::617 - Cirugía, medicina regional, odontología, oftalmología, otología, audiología |
topic |
610 - Medicina y salud::617 - Cirugía, medicina regional, odontología, oftalmología, otología, audiología Paraganglioma Extraadrenal Paraganglioma, Extra-Adrenal EXTIRPACION (CIRUGIA) Excision (surgery) Paraganglioma Carotid body tumor Clinical classification Neurological complications Surgery Paraganglioma Tumor del cuerpo carotídeo Clasificación clínica Complicaciones neurológicas Cirugía |
dc.subject.decs.spa.fl_str_mv |
Paraganglioma Extraadrenal |
dc.subject.decs.eng.fl_str_mv |
Paraganglioma, Extra-Adrenal |
dc.subject.lemb.spa.fl_str_mv |
EXTIRPACION (CIRUGIA) |
dc.subject.lemb.eng.fl_str_mv |
Excision (surgery) |
dc.subject.proposal.eng.fl_str_mv |
Paraganglioma Carotid body tumor Clinical classification Neurological complications Surgery |
dc.subject.proposal.spa.fl_str_mv |
Paraganglioma Tumor del cuerpo carotídeo Clasificación clínica Complicaciones neurológicas Cirugía |
description |
ílustraciones, graficas |
publishDate |
2023 |
dc.date.accessioned.none.fl_str_mv |
2023-05-31T21:14:26Z |
dc.date.available.none.fl_str_mv |
2023-05-31T21:14:26Z |
dc.date.issued.none.fl_str_mv |
2023-05-08 |
dc.type.spa.fl_str_mv |
Trabajo de grado - Especialidad Médica |
dc.type.driver.spa.fl_str_mv |
info:eu-repo/semantics/masterThesis |
dc.type.version.spa.fl_str_mv |
info:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersion |
dc.type.content.spa.fl_str_mv |
Text |
dc.type.redcol.spa.fl_str_mv |
http://purl.org/redcol/resource_type/TM |
status_str |
acceptedVersion |
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https://repositorio.unal.edu.co/handle/unal/83937 |
dc.identifier.instname.spa.fl_str_mv |
Universidad Nacional de Colombia |
dc.identifier.reponame.spa.fl_str_mv |
Repositorio Institucional Universidad Nacional de Colombia |
dc.identifier.repourl.spa.fl_str_mv |
https://repositorio.unal.edu.co/ |
url |
https://repositorio.unal.edu.co/handle/unal/83937 https://repositorio.unal.edu.co/ |
identifier_str_mv |
Universidad Nacional de Colombia Repositorio Institucional Universidad Nacional de Colombia |
dc.language.iso.spa.fl_str_mv |
spa |
language |
spa |
dc.relation.references.spa.fl_str_mv |
1. Hu, H., Xiang, Y., Huang, B., Yuan, D., Yang, Y., & Zhao, J. (2021). Impact of gender on the prognosis of carotid body tumor after surgical resection. Journal of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, 50(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40463-021-00540-y 2. Wang, Y. H., Zhu, J. H., Yang, J., Ma, W., Zhong, H., Zhang, W. S., & Wu, J. Y. (2022). The characteristics of carotid body tumors in high-altitude region: Analysis from a single center. Vascular, 30(2), 301–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/17085381211005238 3. Wreesmann, V. B., & Nixon, I. J. (2021). A novel classification of carotid body tumors. European Journal of Surgical Oncology, 47(8), 1813–1815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejso.2021.05.013 4. Hamming, J. F., & Schepers, A. (2021). Assessing the complexity of a carotid body tumor resection. European Journal of Surgical Oncology, 47(8), 1811–1812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejso.2021.04.022 5. Menegolo, M., Xodo, A., Bozza, R., Piazza, M., Pirri, C., Caroccia, B., Schiavi, F., Opocher, G., Antonello, M., & Grego, F. (2021). Improving Outcomes in Carotid Body Tumors Treatment: The Impact of a Multidisciplinary Team Approach. Annals of Vascular Surgery, 75(February), 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avsg.2021.01.074 6. Van Der Bogt, K. E. A., Vrancken Peeters, M. P. F. M., Van Baalen, J. M., & Hamming, J. F. (2008). Resection of carotid body tumors: Results of an evolving surgical technique. Annals of Surgery, 247(5), 877–884. https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0b013e3181656cc0 7. Davila, V. J., Chang, J. M., Stone, W. M., Fowl, R. J., Bower, T. C., Hinni, M. L., & Money, S. R. (2016). Current surgical management of carotid body tumors. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 64(6), 1703–1710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvs.2016.05.076 8. Shamblin WR, ReMine WH, Sheps SG, et al. Carotid body tumor (chemodectoma). Clinicopathologic analysis of ninety cases. Am J Surg 1971;122:732–39. doi: 10.1016/0002-9610(71)90436-3 9. Jasper A, Mammen S, Gowri MS, Keshava SN, Selvaraj D. Imaging criteria to predict Shamblin group in carotid body tumors - revisited. Diagn Interv Radiol. 2021 May;27(3):354-359. doi: 10.5152/dir.2021.20028. PMID: 33769292; PMCID: PMC8136543. 10. Zhang, W., Liu, F., Hou, K., Shu, X., Chen, B., Wang, L., Guo, D., & Fu, W. (2021). Surgical outcomes and factors associated with malignancy in carotid body tumors. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 74(2), 586–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvs.2020.12.097 11. Chen, W. liang, Zhou, B., Pan, C. bin, Yuan, K. fang, Zhong, J. long, & Hong, L. (2021). Comparison of 3 techniques of surgical treatment of carotid body tumors. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology and Oral Radiology, 131(6), 643–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oooo.2021.01.005 12. Straughan, D. M., Neychev, V. K., Sadowski, S. M., Ellis, R. J., Thomas, F., Patronas, N. J., Pacak, K., Kebebew, E., & Nilubol, N. (2015). Preoperative Imaging Features are Associated with Surgical Complications Following Carotid Body Tumor Resection. World Journal of Surgery, 39(8), 2084–2089. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00268-015-3058-9 13. Hallett Jr, J. W., Nora, J. D., Hollier, L. H., Cherry Jr, K. J., & Pairolero, P. C. (1988). Trends in neurovascular complications of surgical management for carotid body and cervical paraganglionmas: A fifty-year experience with 153 tumors. Journal of vascular surgery, 7(2), 284-291. 14. Gu, G., Wu, X., Ji, L., Liu, Z., Li, F., Liu, B., Liu, C., Ye, W., Chen, Y., Shao, J., Zeng, R., Song, X., Guan, H., & Zheng, Y. (2021). Proposed modification to the Shamblin's classification of carotid body tumors: A single-center retrospective experience of 116 tumors. European journal of surgical oncology : the journal of the European Society of Surgical Oncology and the British Association of Surgical Oncology, 47(8), 1953–1960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejso.2021.03.244 15. Wen, D., Zhou, J., Li, Y., Zhu, J., Wang, S., Song, C., ... & Sun, Y. (2023). A new potential risk factor for permanent cranial nerve injury following carotid body tumor resection. Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery, 13(1), 384. https://doi.org/10.21037/qims-22-464 16. Shamblin, W. R., ReMine, W. H., Sheps, S. G., & Harrison Jr, E. G. (1971). Carotid body tumor (chemodectoma): clinicopathologic analysis of ninety cases. The American Journal of Surgery, 122(6), 732-739. 17. Kim, G. Y., Lawrence, P. F., Moridzadeh, R. S., Zimmerman, K., Munoz, A. (2017). New predictors of complications in carotid body tumor resection. Journal of vascular surgery, 65(6), 1673–1679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvs.2016.12.124 18. Law, Y., Chan, Y. C., & Cheng, S. W. (2017). Surgical management of carotid body tumor–Is Shamblin classification sufficient to predict surgical outcome?. Vascular, 25(2), 184-189. 19. Robertson, V., Poli, F., Hobson, B., Saratzis, A., & Ross Naylor, A. (2019). A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Presentation and Surgical Management of Patients With Carotid Body Tumours. European journal of vascular and endovascular surgery : the official journal of the European Society for Vascular Surgery, 57(4), 477–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejvs.2018.10.038 20. Ikeda, A., Shiga, K., Katagiri, K., Saito, D., Miyaguchi, J., Oikawa, S. I., ... & Kaneko, K. I. (2018). Multi-institutional survey of carotid body tumors in Japan. Oncology Letters, 15(4), 5318-5324. 21. Sridhara, S. K., Yener, M., Hanna, E. Y., Rich, T., Jimenez, C., & Kupferman, M. E. (2013). Genetic testing in head and neck paraganglioma: who, what, and why?. Journal of Neurological Surgery Part B: Skull Base, 74(04), 236-240. 22. Torrealba, J. I., Valdes, F., Krämer, A. H., Mertens, R., Bergoeing, M., & Mariné, L. (2016). Management of carotid bifurcation tumors: 30-year experience. Annals of Vascular Surgery, 34, 200-205. 23. Pacheco-Ojeda, L. A. (2017). Carotid body tumors: Surgical experience in 215 cases. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery, 45(9), 1472-1477. |
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47 páginas |
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Universidad Nacional de Colombia |
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Bogotá - Medicina - Especialidad en Cirugía General |
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Facultad de Medicina |
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Bogotá, Colombia |
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Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Bogotá |
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Universidad Nacional de Colombia |
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Atribución-NoComercial 4.0 Internacionalhttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccesshttp://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2Zuñiga Pavia, Sergioda40601bbbb259a00f0fc8d4b5b26643Correa Gonzalez, Juliana Patricia155b586d4bdc46c18cb91fcb6e414ce72023-05-31T21:14:26Z2023-05-31T21:14:26Z2023-05-08https://repositorio.unal.edu.co/handle/unal/83937Universidad Nacional de ColombiaRepositorio Institucional Universidad Nacional de Colombiahttps://repositorio.unal.edu.co/ílustraciones, graficasIntroducción: Los quemodectomas o tumores del cuerpo carotídeo son neoplasias neuroendocrinas típicamente localizadas en la bifurcación de la arteria carótida. La mayoría de los tumores del cuerpo carotídeo son de crecimiento lento, por esto se debe estudiar cada caso, evaluando riesgo beneficio del procedimiento quirúrgico Materiales y metodos: Se realiza un estudio de serie de casos con 64 pacientes, realizando un análisis descriptivo y retrospectivo de estos tumores sometidos a tratamiento quirúrgico por el servicio de cirugía de cabeza y cuello del Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia (HUN) entre el 2017 y 2022. Se analizan datos demográficos con respecto al sexo y edad de presentación y otros morfológicos de tamaño, extensión y clasificacion, evaluando los descenlaces obtenidos. Resultados: Dentro del grupo de complicaciones diagnosticadas en el posoperatorio se identificó que en 18(28.1%) pacientes resultó afectado el nervio facial y en 16(25.0%) casos resultó afectado el nervio hipogloso. La lesión de cuerdas vocales fue la más frecuente siendo reportada en un 26.6%(n=17), seguida por la reintervención quirúrgica(7.8%[n=5]). También se encontraron complicaciones como abscesos, ataque cerebrovascular isquémico, fístula oronasal, hematoma, infarto agudo de miocardio, infección del sitio operatorio, parálisis de cuerda vocal y seroma. (Texto tomado de la fuente)Introduction: Chemodectomas or carotid body tumors are neuroendocrine neoplasms typically located in the bifurcation of the carotid artery. Most of these are slow-growing tumors, reason why each case must be studied individually, assessing the surgical procedure's risk-benefit. Materials and methods: We present a large case series including 64 patients that underwent surgical resection of carotid body tumors at Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia between 2017 and 2022. We retrospectively analyzed data regarding demographics, clinical presentation, morphological and histological features, and surgical outcomes, including perioperative complications. Results: It was identified that the most frequent complications were facial nerve injury in 28.1% (n = 18), vocal cord injury in 26.6% (n = 17), and hypoglossal nerve injury in 25.0% (n = 16) cases. Complications such as abscesses, ischemic stroke, oronasal fistula, hematoma, acute myocardial infarction, operative site infection, vocal cord paralysis, and seroma were also documented. Five (7.8%) patients required surgical reintervention. Conclusion: Carotid body tumors can be diagnosed on clinical grounds, requiring vascular imaging confirmation. These infrequent lesions are generally benign. Early surgical removal by surgeons with vascular expertise avoids permanent neurological and or vascular complications.Especialidades MédicasEspecialista en Cirugía GeneralSe realizará una serie de casos incluyendo los pacientes con tumores de cuerpo carotídeo (quemodectoma o paraganglioma) sometidos a tratamiento quirúrgico por el servicio de cirugía de cabeza y cuello del Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia (HUN) entre el 2017 y 2022 A partir del marco de variables a estudio, junto con revisión de la literatura y un grupo focal con cirujanos expertos, se seleccionarán y definirán las variables medidas a todos los pacientes, y se diseñará un formato de recolección de datos en RedCap® que permitirá alimentar una única base de datos. Se evaluarán los criterios de elegibilidad de los pacientes mostrados previamente y se registrará la información en tres momentos: 1. Cuando el paciente consulta por 1ra vez: en este momento se registrará la información de ingreso, la anamnesis, las características generales al examen físico y características imagenológicas del quemodectoma (incluido Shamblin), y la conducta tomada (CIRUGIA); 2. Cuando el paciente sea sometido a intervención quirúrgica; y 3. Cuando se obtenga el diagnóstico definitivo y se realice el seguimiento post-operatorio.47 páginasapplication/pdfspaUniversidad Nacional de ColombiaBogotá - Medicina - Especialidad en Cirugía GeneralFacultad de MedicinaBogotá, ColombiaUniversidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Bogotá610 - Medicina y salud::617 - Cirugía, medicina regional, odontología, oftalmología, otología, audiologíaParaganglioma ExtraadrenalParaganglioma, Extra-AdrenalEXTIRPACION (CIRUGIA)Excision (surgery)ParagangliomaCarotid body tumorClinical classificationNeurological complicationsSurgeryParagangliomaTumor del cuerpo carotídeoClasificación clínicaComplicaciones neurológicasCirugíaTécnica quirúrgica de resección de tumores del cuerpo carotideo implementada en el Hospital Universitario Nacional de Colombia y desenlaces post operatorios asociadosSurgical technique for resection of carotid body tumors implemented at the National University Hospital of Colombia and associated postoperative outcomesTrabajo de grado - Especialidad Médicainfo:eu-repo/semantics/masterThesisinfo:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersionTexthttp://purl.org/redcol/resource_type/TM1. Hu, H., Xiang, Y., Huang, B., Yuan, D., Yang, Y., & Zhao, J. (2021). Impact of gender on the prognosis of carotid body tumor after surgical resection. Journal of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, 50(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40463-021-00540-y2. Wang, Y. H., Zhu, J. H., Yang, J., Ma, W., Zhong, H., Zhang, W. S., & Wu, J. Y. (2022). The characteristics of carotid body tumors in high-altitude region: Analysis from a single center. Vascular, 30(2), 301–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/170853812110052383. Wreesmann, V. B., & Nixon, I. J. (2021). A novel classification of carotid body tumors. European Journal of Surgical Oncology, 47(8), 1813–1815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejso.2021.05.0134. Hamming, J. F., & Schepers, A. (2021). Assessing the complexity of a carotid body tumor resection. European Journal of Surgical Oncology, 47(8), 1811–1812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejso.2021.04.0225. Menegolo, M., Xodo, A., Bozza, R., Piazza, M., Pirri, C., Caroccia, B., Schiavi, F., Opocher, G., Antonello, M., & Grego, F. (2021). Improving Outcomes in Carotid Body Tumors Treatment: The Impact of a Multidisciplinary Team Approach. Annals of Vascular Surgery, 75(February), 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avsg.2021.01.0746. Van Der Bogt, K. E. A., Vrancken Peeters, M. P. F. M., Van Baalen, J. M., & Hamming, J. F. (2008). Resection of carotid body tumors: Results of an evolving surgical technique. Annals of Surgery, 247(5), 877–884. https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0b013e3181656cc07. Davila, V. J., Chang, J. M., Stone, W. M., Fowl, R. J., Bower, T. C., Hinni, M. L., & Money, S. R. (2016). Current surgical management of carotid body tumors. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 64(6), 1703–1710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvs.2016.05.0768. Shamblin WR, ReMine WH, Sheps SG, et al. Carotid body tumor (chemodectoma). Clinicopathologic analysis of ninety cases. Am J Surg 1971;122:732–39. doi: 10.1016/0002-9610(71)90436-39. Jasper A, Mammen S, Gowri MS, Keshava SN, Selvaraj D. Imaging criteria to predict Shamblin group in carotid body tumors - revisited. Diagn Interv Radiol. 2021 May;27(3):354-359. doi: 10.5152/dir.2021.20028. PMID: 33769292; PMCID: PMC8136543.10. Zhang, W., Liu, F., Hou, K., Shu, X., Chen, B., Wang, L., Guo, D., & Fu, W. (2021). Surgical outcomes and factors associated with malignancy in carotid body tumors. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 74(2), 586–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvs.2020.12.09711. Chen, W. liang, Zhou, B., Pan, C. bin, Yuan, K. fang, Zhong, J. long, & Hong, L. (2021). Comparison of 3 techniques of surgical treatment of carotid body tumors. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology and Oral Radiology, 131(6), 643–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oooo.2021.01.00512. Straughan, D. M., Neychev, V. K., Sadowski, S. M., Ellis, R. J., Thomas, F., Patronas, N. J., Pacak, K., Kebebew, E., & Nilubol, N. (2015). Preoperative Imaging Features are Associated with Surgical Complications Following Carotid Body Tumor Resection. World Journal of Surgery, 39(8), 2084–2089. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00268-015-3058-913. Hallett Jr, J. W., Nora, J. D., Hollier, L. H., Cherry Jr, K. J., & Pairolero, P. C. (1988). Trends in neurovascular complications of surgical management for carotid body and cervical paraganglionmas: A fifty-year experience with 153 tumors. Journal of vascular surgery, 7(2), 284-291.14. Gu, G., Wu, X., Ji, L., Liu, Z., Li, F., Liu, B., Liu, C., Ye, W., Chen, Y., Shao, J., Zeng, R., Song, X., Guan, H., & Zheng, Y. (2021). Proposed modification to the Shamblin's classification of carotid body tumors: A single-center retrospective experience of 116 tumors. European journal of surgical oncology : the journal of the European Society of Surgical Oncology and the British Association of Surgical Oncology, 47(8), 1953–1960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejso.2021.03.24415. Wen, D., Zhou, J., Li, Y., Zhu, J., Wang, S., Song, C., ... & Sun, Y. (2023). A new potential risk factor for permanent cranial nerve injury following carotid body tumor resection. Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery, 13(1), 384. https://doi.org/10.21037/qims-22-46416. Shamblin, W. R., ReMine, W. H., Sheps, S. G., & Harrison Jr, E. G. (1971). Carotid body tumor (chemodectoma): clinicopathologic analysis of ninety cases. The American Journal of Surgery, 122(6), 732-739.17. Kim, G. Y., Lawrence, P. F., Moridzadeh, R. S., Zimmerman, K., Munoz, A. (2017). New predictors of complications in carotid body tumor resection. Journal of vascular surgery, 65(6), 1673–1679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvs.2016.12.12418. Law, Y., Chan, Y. C., & Cheng, S. W. (2017). Surgical management of carotid body tumor–Is Shamblin classification sufficient to predict surgical outcome?. Vascular, 25(2), 184-189.19. Robertson, V., Poli, F., Hobson, B., Saratzis, A., & Ross Naylor, A. (2019). 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Carotid body tumors: Surgical experience in 215 cases. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery, 45(9), 1472-1477.EstudiantesORIGINAL1144044026.2023.pdf1144044026.2023.pdfTrabajo de grado. 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