Determinación de aislados Ambientales de c. gattii, c. Neoformans var Neoformans y c. Neoformans var Grubii pertenecientes al complejo c. Neoformans en los parques Simon Bolivar, Antonia Santos, Colon y nacional en el Municipio de san José de Cúcuta, Norte de Santander, Colombia, año 2017.
164 p.
- Autores:
-
Rubio Cano, Aymet Patricia.
Gelves Trujillo, Damarys Lorena.
Rincon Castrillon, Gyovany Alexander.
- Tipo de recurso:
- Trabajo de grado de pregrado
- Fecha de publicación:
- 2017
- Institución:
- Universidad de Santander
- Repositorio:
- Repositorio Universidad de Santander
- Idioma:
- spa
- OAI Identifier:
- oai:repositorio.udes.edu.co:001/4146
- Acceso en línea:
- https://repositorio.udes.edu.co/handle/001/4146
- Palabra clave:
- Cryptococosis
Cryptococcosis
Inmunosuprimidos
Immunosuppressed
Inmunocompetentes
Immunocompet
- Rights
- openAccess
- License
- Derechos Reservados - Universidad de Santander, 2017
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Determinación de aislados Ambientales de c. gattii, c. Neoformans var Neoformans y c. Neoformans var Grubii pertenecientes al complejo c. Neoformans en los parques Simon Bolivar, Antonia Santos, Colon y nacional en el Municipio de san José de Cúcuta, Norte de Santander, Colombia, año 2017. |
| title |
Determinación de aislados Ambientales de c. gattii, c. Neoformans var Neoformans y c. Neoformans var Grubii pertenecientes al complejo c. Neoformans en los parques Simon Bolivar, Antonia Santos, Colon y nacional en el Municipio de san José de Cúcuta, Norte de Santander, Colombia, año 2017. |
| spellingShingle |
Determinación de aislados Ambientales de c. gattii, c. Neoformans var Neoformans y c. Neoformans var Grubii pertenecientes al complejo c. Neoformans en los parques Simon Bolivar, Antonia Santos, Colon y nacional en el Municipio de san José de Cúcuta, Norte de Santander, Colombia, año 2017. Cryptococosis Cryptococcosis Inmunosuprimidos Immunosuppressed Inmunocompetentes Immunocompet |
| title_short |
Determinación de aislados Ambientales de c. gattii, c. Neoformans var Neoformans y c. Neoformans var Grubii pertenecientes al complejo c. Neoformans en los parques Simon Bolivar, Antonia Santos, Colon y nacional en el Municipio de san José de Cúcuta, Norte de Santander, Colombia, año 2017. |
| title_full |
Determinación de aislados Ambientales de c. gattii, c. Neoformans var Neoformans y c. Neoformans var Grubii pertenecientes al complejo c. Neoformans en los parques Simon Bolivar, Antonia Santos, Colon y nacional en el Municipio de san José de Cúcuta, Norte de Santander, Colombia, año 2017. |
| title_fullStr |
Determinación de aislados Ambientales de c. gattii, c. Neoformans var Neoformans y c. Neoformans var Grubii pertenecientes al complejo c. Neoformans en los parques Simon Bolivar, Antonia Santos, Colon y nacional en el Municipio de san José de Cúcuta, Norte de Santander, Colombia, año 2017. |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Determinación de aislados Ambientales de c. gattii, c. Neoformans var Neoformans y c. Neoformans var Grubii pertenecientes al complejo c. Neoformans en los parques Simon Bolivar, Antonia Santos, Colon y nacional en el Municipio de san José de Cúcuta, Norte de Santander, Colombia, año 2017. |
| title_sort |
Determinación de aislados Ambientales de c. gattii, c. Neoformans var Neoformans y c. Neoformans var Grubii pertenecientes al complejo c. Neoformans en los parques Simon Bolivar, Antonia Santos, Colon y nacional en el Municipio de san José de Cúcuta, Norte de Santander, Colombia, año 2017. |
| dc.creator.fl_str_mv |
Rubio Cano, Aymet Patricia. Gelves Trujillo, Damarys Lorena. Rincon Castrillon, Gyovany Alexander. |
| dc.contributor.advisor.spa.fl_str_mv |
Angarita Sanchez, Asbleide Karina. Contreras Rangel, Jael. |
| dc.contributor.author.spa.fl_str_mv |
Rubio Cano, Aymet Patricia. Gelves Trujillo, Damarys Lorena. Rincon Castrillon, Gyovany Alexander. |
| dc.subject.proposal.spa.fl_str_mv |
Cryptococosis Cryptococcosis Inmunosuprimidos Immunosuppressed Inmunocompetentes Immunocompet |
| topic |
Cryptococosis Cryptococcosis Inmunosuprimidos Immunosuppressed Inmunocompetentes Immunocompet |
| description |
164 p. |
| publishDate |
2017 |
| dc.date.issued.spa.fl_str_mv |
2017-12-18 |
| dc.date.accessioned.spa.fl_str_mv |
2019-12-06T14:44:23Z |
| dc.date.available.spa.fl_str_mv |
2019-12-06T14:44:23Z |
| dc.type.spa.fl_str_mv |
Trabajo de grado - Pregrado |
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http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_7a1f |
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Text |
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info:eu-repo/semantics/bachelorThesis |
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https://purl.org/redcol/resource_type/TP |
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info:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersion |
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http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_7a1f |
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https://repositorio.udes.edu.co/handle/001/4146 |
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T 17.17 R814d |
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Alonso M, Garcia F, Mallolas J, Soriano A, Ortega M, Miro JM, et al. Disseminated cryptococcosis in patients with AIDS. Prognostic factors of poor outcome. Med Clin (Barc) 1999;112:401-405. Aulakh HS, Straus SE, Kwon-Chung KJ. Genetic relatedness of Filobasidiella neoformans (Cryptococcus neoformans) and Filobasidiella bacillispora (Cryptococ- cus bacillispora) as determined by DNA base composition and sequence homology studies. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1981;31:97–103. Bicanic T, Harrison TS. Cryptococcal meningitis. Br Med Bull 2004;72:99-118. Borelli D. Medios caseros para Micología. Arch Venez Med Trop Para Med 1969;4:301-310. Burnik C, Altintas ND, Ozkaya G, Serter T, Selcuk ZT, Firat P, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome due to Cryptococcus albidus pneumonia: case report and review of the literature. Med Mycol 2007;45:469-473. Boekhout T, Theelen B, Diaz M, Fell JW, Hop WC, Abeln EC, et al. Hybrid genotypes in the pathogenic yeast Cryptococcus neoformans. Microbiology 2001;147:891-907. Chayakulkeeree M, Perfect JR. Cryptococcosis. Infectious disease clinics of North America. 2006;20(3):507-44. Casadevall A, Perfect JR. Cryptococcus neoformans. Washington DC: ASM Press; 1998. Campbell GD. Primary pulmonary cryptococcosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1966;94:236- 247. Cameron ML, Barlett JA, Gallis HA, Waskin HA. Manifestations of pulmonary cryp- tococcosis in patient with Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13:64-67. Chaskes S, Tyndall RL. Pigment production by Cryptococcus neoformans from para- and ortho-Diphenols: effect of the nitrogen source. J Clin Microbiol 1975;1:509- 514. Chen LC, Blank ES, Casadevall A. Extracellular proteinase activity of Cryptococcus neoformans. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1996;3:570-574. Chang YC, Kwon-Chung KJ. Complementation of a capsule-deficient mutation of Cryptococcus neoformans restores its virulence. Mol Cell Biol 1994;14:4912-4919. De Castro LE, Sarraf OA, Lally JM, Sandoval HP, Solomon KD, Vroman DT. Cryptococcus albidus keratitis after corneal transplantation. Cornea 2005;24:882- 142 883. Diaz-Perez JA, Garcia-Vera JA, Mantilla-Hernandez JC, Pradilla-Ardila G. Crypto- coccoma in the central nervous system of a non-immunocompromised patient. Rev Neurol 2008;46:97-101. Dinato SL, Dinato MM, Nakanishi CP, Almeida JR, Romiti N. Disseminated cutane- ous cryptococcosis in a patient with AIDS. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2006;48:353-358. Doering TL, Nosanchuk JD, Roberts WK, Casadevall A. Melanin as a potential cryp- tococcal defence against microbicidal proteins. Med.Mycol. 1999;37:175-181. Dufait R, Velho R, De Vroey C. Rapid identification of the two varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans by D-proline assimilation. Mykosen 1987;30:483. Eisenman HC, Casadevall A, McClelland EE. New Insights on the Pathogenesis of Invasive Cryptococcus neoformans Infection. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2007;9:457-464. Ellis DH. Pfeiffer TJ. Ecoloav, (1997) -. life cvcle. and infectious propagule of Cryp- tococcus neoformans. Lancet 1990;336:923-5.(consulta: disponible https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1976940). Ellis DH, Pfeiffer TJ. Natural habitat of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii. J Clin Microbiol 1990;28:1642-1644. Emmons CW. Isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans from soil. J Bacteriol 1951;62:685-690. Escandón, P., de Bedout, C., Lizarazo, J., Agudelo, C. I., Tobón, Á., Bello, S. & Castañeda, E. (2012). Cryptococcosis in Colombia: Results of the national surveil- lance program for the years 2006-2010. Biomédica, 32,386-398. Ito-Kuwa S, Nakamura K, Aoki S, Vidotto V. Serotype identification of Cryptococcus neoformans by multiplex PCR. Mycoses 2007;50:277-281. Javaloyas M, Alemany M, Isern I, Bastida MT. Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis. Med Clin (Barc) 2007;129:80. Johnson FY, Naraqi S. Manic episode secondary to cryptococcal meningitis in a pre- viously healthy adult. P.N.G.Med J;36:59-62. Joshi S, Wattal C, Duggal L. Cutaneous cryptococcosis. J Phycns India 2004;52:242-243. Kano R, Kitagawa M, Oota S, Oosumi T, Murakami Y, Tokuriki M, et al. First case of 143 feline systemic Cryptococcus albidus infection. Med Mycol 2007;19:1-3. Khawcharoenporn T, Apisarnthanarak A, Kiratisin P, Mundy LM, Bailey TC. Evalua- tion of Cryptococcus laurentii meningitis in a patient with HIV infection: a case report and review of the literature. Hawaii Med J 2006;65:260-263. Kidd SE, Hagen F, Tscharke RL, Huynh M, Bartlett KH, Fyfe M, et al. A rare genotype of Cryptococcus gattii caused the cryptococcosis outbreak on Vancouver Island (British Columbia, Canada). Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 2004;101:17258-17263. Kozel TR. Virulence factors of Cryptococcus neoformans. Trends Microbiol. 1995;3:295-299. Krcmery V,Jr, Kunova A, Mardiak J. Nosocomial Cryptococcus laurentii fungemia in a bone marrow transplant patient after prophylaxis with ketoconazole successfully treated with oral fluconazole. Infection 1997;25:130. Kwon-Chung KJ. A new genus, filobasidiella, the perfect state of Cryptococcus neoformans. Mycologia 1975;67:1197-1200. Kwon-Chung KJ. A new species of Filobasidiella, the sexual state of Cryptococcus neoformans B and C serotypes. Mycologia 1976;68:943-946. Kwon-Chung KJ, Bennett JE. Epidemiologic differences between the two varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans. Am J Epidemiol 1984;120:123-130. Kwon-Chung KJ, Bennett JE, Theodore TS. Cryptococcus bacillisporus sp. nov.: Serotype B-C of Cryptococcus neoformans. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1978;28:616–620. Kwon-Chung KJ, Fraser JA, Doering TL, Wang Z, Janbon G, Idnurm A, et al. Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the etiologic agents of cryptococcosis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2014;4(7):a019760. Kwon-Chung KJ, Polacheck I, Bennett JE. Improved diagnostic medium for separa- tion of Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans (serotypes A and D) and Crypto- coccus neoformans var. gattii (serotypes B and C). J Clin Microbiol. 1982;15:535- 537. Kwon-Chung KJ, Varma A. Do major species concepts support one, two or more species within Cryptococcus neoformans? FEMS Yeast Res 2006;6:574-587. Labrecque O, Sylvestre D, Messier S. Systemic Cryptococcus albidus infection in a Doberman Pinscher. J Vet Diagn Invest 2005;17:598-600. Lin SR, Peng CF, Yang SA, Yu HS. Isolation of Cryptococcus albidus var. albidus in patient with pemphigus foliaceus. Gaoxiong Yi Xue Ke Xue Za Zhi 1989;5:126- 128. Lizarazo J, Rodríguez M, Ordóñez N, Vargas J, Castañeda N. Meningitis por Cryptococcus en el Hospital Erasmo Meoz de Cúcuta. Acta Neurol Colomb. 1995;11:259-67. Manfredi R, Fulgaro C, Sabbatani S, Legnani G, Fasulo G. Emergence of ampho- tericin B-resistant Cryptococcus laurentii meningoencephalitis shortly after treatment for Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis in a patient with AIDS. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2006;20:227-232. Mak, S., Vélez, N., Castañeda, E., & Escandón, P. (2015). The Fungus among Us: Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii Ecological Modeling for Colom- bia. Journal of Fungi, 332-344. (Consulta: Disponible: http://www.mdpi.com/2309- 608X/1/3/332/htm). McDonnell JM, Hutchins GM. Pulmonary cryptococcosis. Hum Pathol 1985;16:121- 128. Noguera, M. C., Escandón, P., & Castañeda, E. (2015). Cryptococcosis in Atlántico, Colombia: an approximation of the prevalence of this mycosis and the distribution of the etiological agent in the environment. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medi- cina Tropical, 48(5), 580-586. (Consulta: Disponible: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0037- 86822015000500580&script=sci_arttext). Olszewski MA, Noverr MC, Chen GH, Toews GB, Cox GM, Perfect JR, et al. Urease expression by Cryptococcus neoformans promotes microvascular sequestration, thereby enhancing central nervous system invasion. Am J Pathol 2004;164:1761- 1771. Orsini J, Blaak C, Mahmoud D, Young-Gwang J. Massive cerebral edema resulting in brain death as a complication of Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis. Journal of community hospital internal medicine perspectives. 2015;5(1):1-4. Passoni LF, Wanke B, Nishikawa MM, Lazera MS. Cryptococcus neoformans iso- lated from human dwellings in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: an analysis of the domestic 145 environment of AIDS patients with and without cryptococcosis. Med Mycol 1998; 36: 305-311. (.(consulta: disponible: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10075500). Polacheck I, Hearing VJ, Kwon-Chung KJ. Biochemical studies of phenoloxidase and utilization of catecholamines in Cryptococcus neoformans. J Bacteriol 1982;150:1212-1220. Rosario I, Acosta B, Colom F. La paloma y otras aves como reservorio de Crypto- coccus spp. Rev Iberoam Micol 2008; 25:13-18 .(consulta: disponible: http://www.re- viberoammicol.com/2008-25/S13S18.pdf). Shankar EM, Kumarasamy N, Bella D, Renuka S, Kownhar H, Suniti S, et al. Pneu- monia and pleural effusion due to Cryptococcus laurentii in a clinically proven case of AIDS. Can Respir J 2006;13:275-278. Sivasangeetha K, Harish BN, Sujatha S, Parija SC, Dutta TK. Cryptococcal menin- goencephalitis diagnosed by blood culture. Indian J Med Microbiol 2007;25:282- 284. Speed B, Dunt D. Clinical and host differences between infections with the two vari- eties of Cryptococcus neoformans. Clin Infect Dis 1995;21:28-34; discussion 35-6. Steenbergen JN, Casadevall A. Prevalence of Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans (Serotype D) and Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii (Serotype A) isolates in New York City. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:1974-1976. Tello M, Gutiérrez E, Béjar V, Galarza C, Ramos W, Ortega-Loayza AG. Cryptococcosis. Revista Médica de Risaralda. 2013;19(2):147-53. Vance AM. The use of the mucicarmine stain for a rapid presumptive identification of Cryptococcus from culture. Am J Med Technol 1961;27:125-128. Vasanthi S, Padmavathy BK, Gopal R, Sundaram RS, Manoharan G. Cutaneous cryptococcosis among HIV infected patients. Indian J Med Microbiol 2002;20:165- 166. Vichkova-Lashkoska M, Kamberova S, Starova A, Goleva-Mishevska L, Tsatsa- Biljanovska N, Janevska V, et al. Cutaneous Cryptococcus Laurentii infection in a human immunodeficiency virus-negative subject. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2004;18:99-100. Viciana P, Miralles-Martin P, Knobel H, Gatell JM. Prevention of opportunistic infec- tions in the protease inhibitor era. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 1998;16:1-10. Vidotto V, Leone R, Sinicco A, Ito-kuwa S, Criseo G. Comparison of phospholipase production in Cryptococcus neoformans isolates from AIDS patients and bird drop- pings. Mycopathologia 1998;142:71-76. Viriyavejakul P, Tangwanicharoen T, Punpoowong B, Chaisri U, Wilainam P, Nun- takomon D, et al. Cryptococcal meningitis in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)- positive and HIV-negative patients. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2004;35:33-38. Vogelaers D, Petrovic M, Deroo M, Verplancke P, Claessens Y, Naeyaert JM, et al. A case of primary cutaneous cryptococcosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1997;16:150-152. Wang Y, Casadevall A. Decreased susceptibility of melanized Cryptococcus neofor- mans to UV light. Appl Environ Microbiol 1994;60:3864-3866. Wang Y, Casadevall A. Growth of Cryptococcus neoformans in presence of L- dopa decreases its susceptibility to amphotericin B. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994;38:2648-2650. |
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Derechos Reservados - Universidad de Santander, 2017 |
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Angarita Sanchez, Asbleide Karina.618e792d-9f3b-4a08-a3ae-b265db949840-1Contreras Rangel, Jael.89006b21-779d-4a0c-a16c-0e6c3f0c6b1e-1Rubio Cano, Aymet Patricia.bd2e12ce-3747-48e6-9172-fabf2bae3957-1Gelves Trujillo, Damarys Lorena.59ae8ad0-878e-49c6-a780-d3d4b9d46c96-1Rincon Castrillon, Gyovany Alexander.3c142667-857f-4af4-80df-2a9c89a90461-12019-12-06T14:44:23Z2019-12-06T14:44:23Z2017-12-18164 p.La Criptococosis es una micosis oportunista de gran interés por su presentación asociada a pacientes infectados por VIH, con otras inmunodeficiencias e incluso a personas inmunocompetentes. Estudios realizados han reportado hallazgos de Cryptococcus neoformans de aislamientos ambientales, que corresponden en su gran mayoría a los recuperados de excretas de palomas y suelos contaminados con excretas de palomas, y en los detritos de árboles así como de vegetales y frutas. En Cúcuta, entre los años 2008 y 2009, se logró recuperar un aislamiento de Cryptococcus gattii serotipo B y tres aislamientos de Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii de serotipo A. El objetivo general de la investigación es realizar el aislamiento de las especies del complejo C.neoformans, específicamente C. gattii, C. neoformans var neoformans y C. neoformans var grubii, a partir de muestras de cortezas de árboles, muestras de tierra, frutos secos y excretas de aves de los parques Simón Bolívar, Antonia Santos, La Victoria y Nacional, los cuales son 4 parques públicos muy concurridos de San José de Cúcuta.Cryptococcosis is an opportunistic mycosis of great interest due to its presentation associated with patients infected with HIV, other immunodeficiencies and even immunocompetent persons. Studies have reported findings of Cryptococcus neoformans on environmental isolates, most of which correspond to those recovered from excreta of pigeons and soil contaminated with excreta from pigeons, and from the detritus of trees as well as from vegetables and fruits. In Cúcuta, between 2008 and 2009, it was possible to recover an isolate of Cryptococcus gattii serotype B and three isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii of serotype A. The general objective of the research is to isolate species of the C.neoformans complex, specifically C. gattii, C. neoformans var neoformans and C. neoformans var grubii, from tree bark samples, Samples of soil, nuts and excreta of birds of the Simón Bolívar, Antonia Santos, La Victoria and Nacional parks, which are 4 very popular public parks of San José de Cúcuta.PregradoBacteriólogo(a) y Laboratorista ClínicoTABLA DE CONTENIDO INTRODUCCION ............................................................................................................. 20 1. PROBLEMA .............................................................................................................. 22 1.1 PLANTEAMIENTO DEL PROBLEMA ..................................................................... 22 1.2 FORMULACIÓN DEL PROBLEMA ........................................................................ 27 1.3 OBJETIVOS ........................................................................................................... 27 Objetivo general. ...................................................................................................... 27 Objetivos específicos. ............................................................................................... 27 1.4 JUSTIFICACIÓN .................................................................................................... 28 2. MARCO REFERENCIAL .......................................................................................... 29 2.1 ANTECEDENTES .................................................................................................. 29 2.2 MARCO TEÓRICO ................................................................................................. 34 2.2.1 Taxonomía. ......................................................................................................... 34 2.2.2 Epidemiología de la criptococosis ....................................................................... 35 2.2.3 La Criptococosis: Cuadros Clínicos ..................................................................... 37 2.2.3.1 Criptococosis pulmonar. ................................................................................... 37 2.2.3.2 Criptococosis meníngea. .................................................................................. 37 2.2.3.3 Criptococosis cutánea ................................................................................... 39 2.2.4 Agentes Etiológicos: Cryptococcus neoformans y Cryptococcus gattii ................. 39 2.2.4.1 Características generales ................................................................................. 39 2.2.4.2 Identificación y serotipado ................................................................................ 42 2.2.5 Factores de patogenicidad. ................................................................................. 43 2.2.5.1 Cápsula ............................................................................................................ 43 2.2.5.2 Ureasa.............................................................................................................. 44 2.2.6 Cryptococcus neoformans y Cryptococcus gattii como agentes etiológicos de la criptococosis ................................................................................................................ 44 2.2.7 Cryptococcus neoformans y Cryptococcus gatii en el ambiente. ......................... 45 2.2.8 Cryptococosis en pacientes inmunosuprimidos ................................................... 45 2.3 MARCO CONCEPTUAL ......................................................................................... 46 2.4 MARCO LEGAL ..................................................................................................... 48 2.5 MARCO CONTEXTUAL ......................................................................................... 48 2.6 SISTEMA DE HIPÓTESIS ...................................................................................... 50 2.7 MATRIZ OPERATIVA DE LAS VARIABLES .......................................................... 51 3. MARCO METODOLOGICO ...................................................................................... 52 12 3.1 TIPO DE INVESTIGACIÓN .................................................................................... 52 3.1.1 Nivel de investigación .......................................................................................... 52 3.1.2 Diseño de investigación ....................................................................................... 52 3.3 POBLACION Y MUESTRA ..................................................................................... 54 3.3.1 Población ............................................................................................................ 54 3.3.2 Muestra ............................................................................................................... 54 3.3.3 Técnicas de muestreo ......................................................................................... 54 3.3.3.1 Muestreo no probabilístico: ............................................................................... 54 3.4 TECNICAS DE PROCESAMIENTO Y ANALISIS DE DATOS ................................ 54 3.5 TECNICAS E INTRUMENTO DE RECOLECCIÓN DE DATOS ............................. 55 3.5.1 INVESTIGACION DOCUMENTAL.. ..................................................................... 55 3.5.2 INVESTIGACION DE CAMPO: ........................................................................... 55 4. ANALISIS E INTERPRETACION DE RESULTADOS .................................................. 56 4.1 RESULTADOS ....................................................................................................... 56 4.1.1 Objetivo 1 ............................................................................................................ 56 4.1.1.1 Presencia de Cryptococcus sp parque Simón Bolívar y la Libertad .................. 56 4.1.1.2 Presencia de Cryptococcus sp parque Antonia Santos y Colon....... ................ 57 4.1.1.3 Confirmación de la especie de Cryptococcus con CGB .................................... 59 4.1.1.4 Muestreo parque Nacional ................................................................................ 59 4.1.2 Objetivo 2 ............................................................................................................ 60 4.1.2.1 Caracterización genética .................................................................................. 60 4.2 DISCUSION ........................................................................................................... 61 5. 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