Gender differences in the COVID-19 pandemic risk perception, psychology, and behaviors of spanish university students

The actual COVID-19 pandemic scenario has generated a context of uncertainty, helplessness, and inequality. Yet, the perception of COVID-19 risk has influenced nutritional, psychological, and physical activity patterns depending on gender. We conducted the present research with the aim of studying g...

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Autores:
Rodriguez-Besteiro, Stephanie
Tornero Aguilera, José Francisco
Fernández-Lucas, Jesús
Clemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier
Tipo de recurso:
Article of journal
Fecha de publicación:
2021
Institución:
Corporación Universidad de la Costa
Repositorio:
REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
Idioma:
spa
OAI Identifier:
oai:repositorio.cuc.edu.co:11323/8222
Acceso en línea:
https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8222
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083908
https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/
Palabra clave:
Gender differences
COVID-19
Students
Risk perception
Anxiety
Personality
Rights
openAccess
License
CC0 1.0 Universal
id RCUC2_b2b25bfcf5fdefad3f32acd3281ca736
oai_identifier_str oai:repositorio.cuc.edu.co:11323/8222
network_acronym_str RCUC2
network_name_str REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
repository_id_str
dc.title.spa.fl_str_mv Gender differences in the COVID-19 pandemic risk perception, psychology, and behaviors of spanish university students
title Gender differences in the COVID-19 pandemic risk perception, psychology, and behaviors of spanish university students
spellingShingle Gender differences in the COVID-19 pandemic risk perception, psychology, and behaviors of spanish university students
Gender differences
COVID-19
Students
Risk perception
Anxiety
Personality
title_short Gender differences in the COVID-19 pandemic risk perception, psychology, and behaviors of spanish university students
title_full Gender differences in the COVID-19 pandemic risk perception, psychology, and behaviors of spanish university students
title_fullStr Gender differences in the COVID-19 pandemic risk perception, psychology, and behaviors of spanish university students
title_full_unstemmed Gender differences in the COVID-19 pandemic risk perception, psychology, and behaviors of spanish university students
title_sort Gender differences in the COVID-19 pandemic risk perception, psychology, and behaviors of spanish university students
dc.creator.fl_str_mv Rodriguez-Besteiro, Stephanie
Tornero Aguilera, José Francisco
Fernández-Lucas, Jesús
Clemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier
dc.contributor.author.spa.fl_str_mv Rodriguez-Besteiro, Stephanie
Tornero Aguilera, José Francisco
Fernández-Lucas, Jesús
Clemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier
dc.subject.spa.fl_str_mv Gender differences
COVID-19
Students
Risk perception
Anxiety
Personality
topic Gender differences
COVID-19
Students
Risk perception
Anxiety
Personality
description The actual COVID-19 pandemic scenario has generated a context of uncertainty, helplessness, and inequality. Yet, the perception of COVID-19 risk has influenced nutritional, psychological, and physical activity patterns depending on gender. We conducted the present research with the aim of studying gender differences of university students in the perceived risk of the COVID-19 pandemic, and in psychological, nutritional, oral health, and physical activity habits. To reach the study’s aim, 300 volunteer university students completed an online questionnaire which analyzed variables of perceived risk of the COVID-19 pandemic, psychological profiles, and nutritional, oral health, and physical activity habits. Results showed that females presented a higher perception of danger to the COVID-19 virus than males but showed no differences in how the pandemic has affected personal lives. Females showed higher values of anxiety, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience, while males presented higher values of extraversion. Nutritionally, males presented greater consumption of soft drinks, meat, and pasta or rice, and lower buccal hygiene. Yet, no differences were found regarding physical activity patterns. Results from the present study could be used by various educational institutions to implement multidisciplinary interventions to reduce the stress and risk perception.
publishDate 2021
dc.date.accessioned.none.fl_str_mv 2021-05-04T23:31:35Z
dc.date.available.none.fl_str_mv 2021-05-04T23:31:35Z
dc.date.issued.none.fl_str_mv 2021-04-08
dc.type.spa.fl_str_mv Artículo de revista
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dc.identifier.issn.spa.fl_str_mv 1661-7827
1660-4601
dc.identifier.uri.spa.fl_str_mv https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8222
dc.identifier.doi.spa.fl_str_mv https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083908
dc.identifier.instname.spa.fl_str_mv Corporación Universidad de la Costa
dc.identifier.reponame.spa.fl_str_mv REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
dc.identifier.repourl.spa.fl_str_mv https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/
identifier_str_mv 1661-7827
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Corporación Universidad de la Costa
REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
url https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8222
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083908
https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/
dc.language.iso.none.fl_str_mv spa
language spa
dc.relation.references.spa.fl_str_mv 1. WHO—World Health Organization. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard; WHO: Cham, Switzerland, 2020.
2. Torres, R.; Fernández, M.J. La política económica española y el COVID-19. Funcas Cuad. Inf. Económica 2020, 275, 1–7.
3. Secretaría General de Universidades. Datos y Cifras del Sistema Universitario Español; Publicación 2018–2019; Secretaría General Técnica del Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidad: Madrid, Spain, 2019; pp. 10–13.
4. Díaz, A.L.; Prados, J.S.F.; Canos, V.F.; Martínez, A.M.M. Impactos del confinamiento por el COVID-19 entre universitarios: Satisfacción Vital, Resiliencia y Capital Social Online. RISE 2020, 9, 79–104. [CrossRef]
5. Hou, F.; Bi, F.; Jiao, R.; Luo, D.; Song, K. Gender differences of depression and anxiety among social media users during the COVID-19 outbreak in China: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2020. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Spagnolo, P.A.; Manson, J.E.; Joffe, H. Sex and Gender Differences in Health: What the COVID-19 Pandemic Can Teach Us. Ann. Intern. Med. 2020, 173, 385–386. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Liu, N.; Zhang, F.; Wei, C.; Jia, Y.; Shang, Z.; Sun, L.; Liu, W.; Wu, L.; Sun, Z.; Zhou, Y.; et al. Prevalence and predictors of PTSS during COVID-19 outbreak in China hardest-hit areas: Gender differences matter. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 287, 112921. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
8. Galasso, V.; Pons, V.; Profeta, P.; Becher, M.; Brouard, S.; Foucault, M. Gender differences in COVID-19 related attitudes and behavior: Evidence from a panel survey in eight OECD countries. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2020, 117, 27285–27291. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
9. Garikipati, S.; Kambhampati, U. Women Leaders are Better Fighting at the Pandemic; Vox Eu: London, UK, 2020.
10. Cobo-Rendón, R.; Vega-Valenzuela, A.; García-Álvarez, D. Consideraciones institucionales sobre la Salud Mental en estudiantes universitarios durante la pandemia de COVID-19. CienciAmérica 2020, 9, 277–284. [CrossRef]
11. Odriozola-González, P.; Planchuelo-Gómez, Á.; Irurtia, M.J.; de Luis-García, R. Psychological effects of the COVID-19 outbreak and lockdown among students and workers of a Spanish university. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 290, 113108. [CrossRef]
12. Gao, W.; Ping, S.; Liu, X. Gender differences in depression, anxiety, and stress among college students: A longitudinal study from China. J. Affect. Disord. 2020, 263, 292–300. [CrossRef]
13. Belinchón-deMiguel, P.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F.; Dalamitros, A.A.; Nikolaidis, P.T.; Rosemann, T.; Knechtle, B.; Clemaleste-Suárez, V.J. Multidisciplinary analysis of differences between finisher and non-finisher ultra-endurance mountain athletes. Front. Physiol. 2020, 10, 1507. [CrossRef]
14. Sharkey, T.; Whatnall, M.C.; Hutchesson, M.J.; Haslam, R.L.; Bezzina, A.; Collins, C.E.; Ashton, L.M. Effectiveness of gendertargeted versus gender-neutral interventions aimed at improving dietary intake, physical activity and/or overweight/obesity in young adults (aged 17–35 years): A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr. J. 2020, 19, 1–20. [CrossRef]
15. Soh, N.L.; Walter, G.; Baur, L.; Collins, C. Nutrition, mood and behaviour: A review. Acta Neuropsychiatr. 2009, 21, 214–227. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Clemente-Suárez, V.J.; Dalamitros, A.A.; Beltran-Velasco, A.I.; Mielgo-Ayuso, J.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F. Social and psychophysiological consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic: An extensive literature review. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 3077. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Práxedes, A.; Moreno, A.; Sevil, J.; Del Villar, F.; García-González, L. Niveles de Actividad Física en Estudiantes Universitarios: Diferencias en Función del Género, la Edad y los Estados de Cambio. In Revista Iberoamericana De Psicología Del Ejercicio Y Ei Deporte; 2016; Volume 11, pp. 123–132. Available online: https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/3111/311143051014.pdf (accessed on 7 April 2021).
18. Lores, A.P.; Murcia, J.A.M. Actitud de los universitarios ante la práctica físico-deportiva: Diferencias por géneros. Rev. Psicol. Deporte 2008, 17, 7–23.
19. Rammstedt, B.; John, O.P. Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German. J. Res. Personal. 2007, 41, 203–212. [CrossRef]
20. Van Knippenberg, F.C.E.; Duivenvoorden, H.J.; Bonke, B.; Passchier, J. Shortening the state-trait anxiety inventory. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1990, 43, 995–1000. [CrossRef]
21. Bond, F.W.; Hayes, S.C.; Baer, R.A.; Carpenter, K.M.; Guenole, N.; Orcutt, H.K.; Waltz, T.; Zettle, R.D. Preliminary psychometric properties of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire–II: A revised measure of psychological inflexibility and experiential avoidance. Behav. Ther. 2011, 42, 676–688. [CrossRef]
22. Russell, D.W. UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure. J. Personal. Assess. 1996, 66, 20–40. [CrossRef]
23. Zung, W.W. A self-rating depression scale. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1965, 12, 63–70. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Sandín, B.; Valiente, R.M.; García-Escalera, J.; Chorot, P. Impacto psicológico de la pandemia de COVID-19: Efectos negativos y positivos en población española asociados al periodo de confinamiento nacional. Rev. Psicopatología Psicol. Clínica 2020, 25. [CrossRef]
25. Matud, M.P. Gender differences in stress and coping styles. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2004, 37, 1401–1415. [CrossRef]
26. Pine, D.S.; Mogg, K.; Bradley, B.P.; Montgomery, L.; Monk, C.S.; McClure, E.; Guyer, A.; Ernst, M.; Charney, D.; Kaufman, J. Attention bias to threat in maltreated children: Implications for vulnerability to stress-related psychopathology. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162, 291–296. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Cabanach, R.G.; Fariña, F.; Freire, C.; González, P.; del Mar Ferradás, M. Diferencias en el afrontamiento del estrés en estudiantes universitarios hombres y mujeres. Eur. J. Educ. Psychol. 2015, 6. [CrossRef]
28. Pacheco, N.; Durán, A.; Rey, L. Inteligencia emocional y su relación con los niveles de burnout, engagement y estrés en estudiantes universitarios. Rev. Educ. 2007, 342, 239–256.
29. Redondo-Flórez, L.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F.; Ramos-Campo, D.J.; Clemente-Suárez, V.J. Gender Differences in Stress-and BurnoutRelated Factors of University Professors. Biomed. Res. Int. 2020, 2020. [CrossRef]
30. Castañeiras, C.; Posada, M.C. Estilos de personalidad y su relación con medidas de ansiedad y depresión: Datos normativos para el Inventario MIPS en adultos marplatenses. Rev. Iberoam. Diagnóstico Evaluación-Avaliação Psicológica 2006, 1, 127–147.
31. Baker, A.H.; Wardle, J. Sex differences in fruit and vegetable intake in older adults. Appetite 2003, 40, 269–275. [CrossRef]
32. Varì, R.; Scazzocchio, B.; Del Papa, S. Dietary habits and gender differences. Ital. J. Gend. Specif. Med. 2017, 3, 55–58.
33. Barzegari, A.; Ebrahimi, M.; Azizi, M.; Ranjbar, K. A study of nutrition knowledge, attitudes and food habits of college students. World Appl. Sci. J. 2011, 15, 1012–1017.
34. Yahia, N.; Wang, D.; Rapley, M.; Dey, R. Assessment of weight status, dietary habits and beliefs, physical activity, and nutritional knowledge among university students. Perspect. Public Health 2016, 136, 231–244. [CrossRef]
35. Moreno, C.O.S.; Lomelí, D.G.; Valencia, D.G.G. Actividad física y hábitos alimenticios en universitarios durante la pandemia por COVID-19. In Memorias de Extenso; Modalidad Virtual; University of Sonora: Sonora, Mexico, 2020.
36. Tachalov, V.V.; Orekhova, L.Y.; Kudryavtseva, T.V.; Isaeva, E.R.; Loboda, E.S. Manifestations of personal characteristics in individual oral care. EPMA J. 2016, 7, 1–5. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
37. Alkan, A.; Cakmak, O.; Yilmaz, S.; Cebi, T.; Gurgan, C. Relationship between psychological factors and oral health status and behaviours. Oral Health Prev. Dent. 2015, 13, 331–339. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
38. Redondo-Flórez, L.; Fernández-Lucas, J.; Clemente-Suárez, V.J. Cultural differences in stress-related psychological, nutrition, physical activity and oral health factors of professors. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3644. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
39. Von Bothmer, M.I.; Fridlund, B. Gender differences in health habits and in motivation for a healthy lifestyle among Swedish university students. Nurs. Health Sci. 2005, 7, 107–118. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
40. Clemente, F.M.; Nikolaidis, P.T.; Martins, F.M.L.; Mendes, R.S. Physical activity patterns in university students: Do they follow the public health guidelines? PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0152516. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
41. Bebetsos, E.; Antoniou, P. University students’ differences on attitudes towards computer use. Comparison with students’ attitudes towards physical activity. Interact. Educ. Multimed. 2008, 17, 20–28.
42. Valenzuela, M.C.S.; Gallegos, L.I.F.; Baca, L.R.L.; López, H.L.M.; Rico, F.J.F. Estrés académico en universitarios y la práctica de ejercicio físico-deportivo. Rev. Publicando 2021, 8, 1–8. [CrossRef]
43. Goenaga, A.N.M.; Marín, A.R. Factores asociados a los estilos de vida en los estudiantes universitarios. Una aplicación del instrumento fantástico. Rev. Digit. Act. Física Deporte 2020, 6, 87–108.
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spelling Rodriguez-Besteiro, StephanieTornero Aguilera, José FranciscoFernández-Lucas, JesúsClemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier2021-05-04T23:31:35Z2021-05-04T23:31:35Z2021-04-081661-78271660-4601https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8222https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083908Corporación Universidad de la CostaREDICUC - Repositorio CUChttps://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/The actual COVID-19 pandemic scenario has generated a context of uncertainty, helplessness, and inequality. Yet, the perception of COVID-19 risk has influenced nutritional, psychological, and physical activity patterns depending on gender. We conducted the present research with the aim of studying gender differences of university students in the perceived risk of the COVID-19 pandemic, and in psychological, nutritional, oral health, and physical activity habits. To reach the study’s aim, 300 volunteer university students completed an online questionnaire which analyzed variables of perceived risk of the COVID-19 pandemic, psychological profiles, and nutritional, oral health, and physical activity habits. Results showed that females presented a higher perception of danger to the COVID-19 virus than males but showed no differences in how the pandemic has affected personal lives. Females showed higher values of anxiety, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience, while males presented higher values of extraversion. Nutritionally, males presented greater consumption of soft drinks, meat, and pasta or rice, and lower buccal hygiene. Yet, no differences were found regarding physical activity patterns. Results from the present study could be used by various educational institutions to implement multidisciplinary interventions to reduce the stress and risk perception.Rodriguez-Besteiro, StephanieTornero Aguilera, José Francisco-will be generated-orcid-0000-0002-0747-8133-600Fernández-Lucas, Jesús-will be generated-orcid-0000-0001-7045-8306-600Clemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier-will be generated-orcid-0000-0002-2397-2801-600application/pdfspaCorporación Universidad de la CostaCC0 1.0 Universalhttp://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccesshttp://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Healthhttps://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/8/3908Gender differencesCOVID-19StudentsRisk perceptionAnxietyPersonalityGender differences in the COVID-19 pandemic risk perception, psychology, and behaviors of spanish university studentsArtículo de revistahttp://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_2df8fbb1Textinfo:eu-repo/semantics/articlehttp://purl.org/redcol/resource_type/ARTinfo:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersion1. WHO—World Health Organization. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard; WHO: Cham, Switzerland, 2020.2. Torres, R.; Fernández, M.J. La política económica española y el COVID-19. Funcas Cuad. Inf. Económica 2020, 275, 1–7.3. Secretaría General de Universidades. Datos y Cifras del Sistema Universitario Español; Publicación 2018–2019; Secretaría General Técnica del Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidad: Madrid, Spain, 2019; pp. 10–13.4. Díaz, A.L.; Prados, J.S.F.; Canos, V.F.; Martínez, A.M.M. Impactos del confinamiento por el COVID-19 entre universitarios: Satisfacción Vital, Resiliencia y Capital Social Online. RISE 2020, 9, 79–104. [CrossRef]5. Hou, F.; Bi, F.; Jiao, R.; Luo, D.; Song, K. Gender differences of depression and anxiety among social media users during the COVID-19 outbreak in China: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2020. [CrossRef] [PubMed]6. Spagnolo, P.A.; Manson, J.E.; Joffe, H. Sex and Gender Differences in Health: What the COVID-19 Pandemic Can Teach Us. Ann. Intern. Med. 2020, 173, 385–386. [CrossRef] [PubMed]7. Liu, N.; Zhang, F.; Wei, C.; Jia, Y.; Shang, Z.; Sun, L.; Liu, W.; Wu, L.; Sun, Z.; Zhou, Y.; et al. Prevalence and predictors of PTSS during COVID-19 outbreak in China hardest-hit areas: Gender differences matter. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 287, 112921. [CrossRef] [PubMed]8. Galasso, V.; Pons, V.; Profeta, P.; Becher, M.; Brouard, S.; Foucault, M. Gender differences in COVID-19 related attitudes and behavior: Evidence from a panel survey in eight OECD countries. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2020, 117, 27285–27291. [CrossRef] [PubMed]9. Garikipati, S.; Kambhampati, U. Women Leaders are Better Fighting at the Pandemic; Vox Eu: London, UK, 2020.10. Cobo-Rendón, R.; Vega-Valenzuela, A.; García-Álvarez, D. Consideraciones institucionales sobre la Salud Mental en estudiantes universitarios durante la pandemia de COVID-19. CienciAmérica 2020, 9, 277–284. [CrossRef]11. Odriozola-González, P.; Planchuelo-Gómez, Á.; Irurtia, M.J.; de Luis-García, R. Psychological effects of the COVID-19 outbreak and lockdown among students and workers of a Spanish university. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 290, 113108. [CrossRef]12. Gao, W.; Ping, S.; Liu, X. Gender differences in depression, anxiety, and stress among college students: A longitudinal study from China. J. Affect. Disord. 2020, 263, 292–300. [CrossRef]13. Belinchón-deMiguel, P.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F.; Dalamitros, A.A.; Nikolaidis, P.T.; Rosemann, T.; Knechtle, B.; Clemaleste-Suárez, V.J. Multidisciplinary analysis of differences between finisher and non-finisher ultra-endurance mountain athletes. Front. Physiol. 2020, 10, 1507. [CrossRef]14. Sharkey, T.; Whatnall, M.C.; Hutchesson, M.J.; Haslam, R.L.; Bezzina, A.; Collins, C.E.; Ashton, L.M. Effectiveness of gendertargeted versus gender-neutral interventions aimed at improving dietary intake, physical activity and/or overweight/obesity in young adults (aged 17–35 years): A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr. J. 2020, 19, 1–20. [CrossRef]15. Soh, N.L.; Walter, G.; Baur, L.; Collins, C. Nutrition, mood and behaviour: A review. Acta Neuropsychiatr. 2009, 21, 214–227. [CrossRef] [PubMed]16. Clemente-Suárez, V.J.; Dalamitros, A.A.; Beltran-Velasco, A.I.; Mielgo-Ayuso, J.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F. Social and psychophysiological consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic: An extensive literature review. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 3077. [CrossRef] [PubMed]17. Práxedes, A.; Moreno, A.; Sevil, J.; Del Villar, F.; García-González, L. Niveles de Actividad Física en Estudiantes Universitarios: Diferencias en Función del Género, la Edad y los Estados de Cambio. In Revista Iberoamericana De Psicología Del Ejercicio Y Ei Deporte; 2016; Volume 11, pp. 123–132. Available online: https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/3111/311143051014.pdf (accessed on 7 April 2021).18. Lores, A.P.; Murcia, J.A.M. Actitud de los universitarios ante la práctica físico-deportiva: Diferencias por géneros. Rev. Psicol. Deporte 2008, 17, 7–23.19. Rammstedt, B.; John, O.P. Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German. J. Res. Personal. 2007, 41, 203–212. [CrossRef]20. Van Knippenberg, F.C.E.; Duivenvoorden, H.J.; Bonke, B.; Passchier, J. Shortening the state-trait anxiety inventory. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1990, 43, 995–1000. [CrossRef]21. Bond, F.W.; Hayes, S.C.; Baer, R.A.; Carpenter, K.M.; Guenole, N.; Orcutt, H.K.; Waltz, T.; Zettle, R.D. Preliminary psychometric properties of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire–II: A revised measure of psychological inflexibility and experiential avoidance. Behav. Ther. 2011, 42, 676–688. [CrossRef]22. Russell, D.W. UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure. J. Personal. Assess. 1996, 66, 20–40. [CrossRef]23. Zung, W.W. A self-rating depression scale. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1965, 12, 63–70. [CrossRef] [PubMed]24. Sandín, B.; Valiente, R.M.; García-Escalera, J.; Chorot, P. Impacto psicológico de la pandemia de COVID-19: Efectos negativos y positivos en población española asociados al periodo de confinamiento nacional. Rev. Psicopatología Psicol. Clínica 2020, 25. [CrossRef]25. Matud, M.P. Gender differences in stress and coping styles. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2004, 37, 1401–1415. [CrossRef]26. Pine, D.S.; Mogg, K.; Bradley, B.P.; Montgomery, L.; Monk, C.S.; McClure, E.; Guyer, A.; Ernst, M.; Charney, D.; Kaufman, J. Attention bias to threat in maltreated children: Implications for vulnerability to stress-related psychopathology. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162, 291–296. [CrossRef] [PubMed]27. 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