Gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during COVID-19 pandemic

This research aimed to explore gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during the COVID-19 pandemic. In order to achieve the study’s aim, 127 adolescent students (17.61 ± 7.43 years) completed an online questionnaire which analysed variables...

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Autores:
Martín Rodríguez, Alexandra
Tornero Aguilera, José Francisco
López-Pérez, P. Javier
Clemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier
Tipo de recurso:
Article of journal
Fecha de publicación:
2021
Institución:
Corporación Universidad de la Costa
Repositorio:
REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
Idioma:
eng
OAI Identifier:
oai:repositorio.cuc.edu.co:11323/8790
Acceso en línea:
https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8790
https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188499
https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/
Palabra clave:
Gender differences
COVID-19
Students
Loneliness
Psychological inflexibility
Experiential avoidance
Rights
openAccess
License
CC0 1.0 Universal
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oai_identifier_str oai:repositorio.cuc.edu.co:11323/8790
network_acronym_str RCUC2
network_name_str REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
repository_id_str
dc.title.spa.fl_str_mv Gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during COVID-19 pandemic
title Gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during COVID-19 pandemic
spellingShingle Gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during COVID-19 pandemic
Gender differences
COVID-19
Students
Loneliness
Psychological inflexibility
Experiential avoidance
title_short Gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during COVID-19 pandemic
title_full Gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during COVID-19 pandemic
title_fullStr Gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during COVID-19 pandemic
title_full_unstemmed Gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during COVID-19 pandemic
title_sort Gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during COVID-19 pandemic
dc.creator.fl_str_mv Martín Rodríguez, Alexandra
Tornero Aguilera, José Francisco
López-Pérez, P. Javier
Clemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier
dc.contributor.author.spa.fl_str_mv Martín Rodríguez, Alexandra
Tornero Aguilera, José Francisco
López-Pérez, P. Javier
Clemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier
dc.subject.spa.fl_str_mv Gender differences
COVID-19
Students
Loneliness
Psychological inflexibility
Experiential avoidance
topic Gender differences
COVID-19
Students
Loneliness
Psychological inflexibility
Experiential avoidance
description This research aimed to explore gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during the COVID-19 pandemic. In order to achieve the study’s aim, 127 adolescent students (17.61 ± 7.43 years) completed an online questionnaire which analysed variables regarding their psychological, nutritional, oral health, and physical activity profiles and habits during the COVID-19 crisis. Students showed a higher weekly alcohol consumption and higher levels of loneliness perception when alcohol consumption was lower. In addition, experimental avoidance and psychological inflexibility values were lower when the perception of having dry mouth or lack of saliva is higher. The results also show that males presented a more varied intake of food than females and a stronger adherence to physical activity routines. Female students presented a lower number of meals per day when beer and alcohol consumption was higher, and a higher tendency for fat- and sugar-rich foods such as fast food or bakery products than males. Regarding the oral health profile, females showed higher values in daily tooth brushing and no significant differences were found in dry mouth and gastritis variables. The results from the present study could be used by various educational institutions to implement multidisciplinary interventions to develop healthier habits.
publishDate 2021
dc.date.accessioned.none.fl_str_mv 2021-10-19T22:48:40Z
dc.date.available.none.fl_str_mv 2021-10-19T22:48:40Z
dc.date.issued.none.fl_str_mv 2021-09-13
dc.type.spa.fl_str_mv Artículo de revista
dc.type.coar.fl_str_mv http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_2df8fbb1
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dc.type.content.spa.fl_str_mv Text
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dc.type.version.spa.fl_str_mv info:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersion
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dc.identifier.issn.spa.fl_str_mv 2076-3417
dc.identifier.uri.spa.fl_str_mv https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8790
dc.identifier.doi.spa.fl_str_mv https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188499
dc.identifier.instname.spa.fl_str_mv Corporación Universidad de la Costa
dc.identifier.reponame.spa.fl_str_mv REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
dc.identifier.repourl.spa.fl_str_mv https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/
identifier_str_mv 2076-3417
Corporación Universidad de la Costa
REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
url https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8790
https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188499
https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/
dc.language.iso.none.fl_str_mv eng
language eng
dc.relation.references.spa.fl_str_mv 1. WHO—World Health Organization. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard; WHO: Cham, Switzerland, 2020.
2. Guessoum, S.B.; Lachal, J.; Radjack, R.; Carretier, E.; Minassian, S.; Benoit, L.; Moro, M.R. Adolescent psychiatric disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 291, 113264. [CrossRef]
3. Peña-Romero, A.C.; Navas-Carrillo, D.; Marín, F.; Orenes-Piñero, E. The future of nutrition: Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics in obesity and cardiovascular diseases. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2018, 58, 3030–3041. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Das, J.K.; Salam, R.A.; Thornburg, K.L.; Prentice, A.M.; Campisi, S.; Lassi, Z.S.; Koletzko, B.; Bhutta, Z.A. Nutrition in adolescents: Physiology, metabolism, and nutritional needs. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2017, 1393, 21–33. [CrossRef]
5. Salam, R.A.; Das, J.K.; Ahmed, W.; Irfan, O.; Sheikh, S.S.; Bhutta, Z.A. Effects of Preventive Nutrition Interventions among Adolescents on Health and Nutritional Status in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients 2019, 12, 49. [CrossRef]
6. Clemente-Suárez, V.J.; Dalamitros, A.A.; Beltran-Velasco, A.I.; Mielgo-Ayuso, J.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F. Social and psychophysiological consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic: An extensive literature review. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 3077. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Odriozola-González, P.; Planchuelo-Gómez, Á.; Irurtia, M.J.; de Luis-García, R. Psychological effects of the COVID-19 outbreak and lockdown among students and workers of a Spanish university. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 290, 113108. [CrossRef]
8. Gao, W.; Ping, S.; Liu, X. Gender differences in depression, anxiety, and stress among college students: A longitudinal study from China. J. Affect. Disord. 2020, 263, 292–300. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
9. Soh, N.L.; Walter, G.; Baur, L.; Collins, C. Nutrition, mood and behaviour: A review. Acta Neuropsychiatr. 2009, 21, 214–227. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. Kris-Etherton, P.M.; Petersen, K.S.; Hibbeln, J.R.; Hurley, D.; Kolick, V.; Peoples, S.; Rodriguez, N.; Woodward-Lopez, G. Nutrition and behavioral health disorders: Depression and anxiety. Nutr. Rev. 2021, 79, 247–260. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Ferry, M.; Sidobre, B.; Lambertin, A.; Barberger-Gateau, P. The SOLINUT study: Analysis of the interaction between nutrition and loneliness in persons aged over 70 years. J. Nutr. Health Aging 2005, 9, 261–268.
12. Cao, W.; Fang, Z.; Hou, G.; Han, M.; Xu, X.; Dong, J.; Zheng, J. The psychological impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in China. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 287, 112934. [CrossRef]
13. Luzzi, V.; Ierardo, G.; Bossù, M.; Polimeni, A. COVID-19: Pediatric Oral Health During and After the Pandemics. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1–8. [CrossRef]
14. Lam, R. Epidemiology and outcomes of traumatic dental injuries: A review of the literature. Aust. Dent. J. 2016, 61, 4–20. [CrossRef]
15. Mobley, C.C. Nutrition and dental caries. Dent. Clin. 2003, 47, 319–336. [CrossRef]
16. Batlle-Bayer, L.; Aldaco, R.; Bala, A.; Puig, R.; Laso, J.; Margallo, M.; Vázquez-Rowe, I.; Antó, J.M.; Fullana-I-Palmer, P. Environmental and nutritional impacts of dietary changes in Spain during the COVID-19 lockdown. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 748, 141410. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Clemente-Suárez, V.J.; Ramos-Campo, D.J.; Mielgo-Ayuso, J.; Dalamitros, A.A.; Nikolaidis, P.A.; Hormeño-Holgado, A.; TorneroAguilera, J.F. Nutrition in the Actual COVID-19 Pandemic. A Narrative Review. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1924.
18. Clemente-Suárez, V.J.; Hormeño-Holgado, A.; Jiménez, M.; Benitez-Agudelo, J.C.; Navarro-Jiménez, E.; Perez-Palencia, N.; Maestre-Serrano, R.; Laborde-Cárdenas, C.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F. Dynamics of Population Immunity Due to the Herd Effect in the COVID-19 Pandemic. Vaccines 2020, 8, 236. [CrossRef]
19. Vanderbruggen, N.; Matthys, F.; Van Laere, S.; Zeeuws, D.; Santermans, L.; Van den Ameele, S.; Crunelle, C.L. Self-Reported Alcohol, Tobacco, and Cannabis Use during COVID-19 Lockdown Measures: Results from a Web-Based Survey. Eur. Addict. Res. 2020, 26, 309–315. [CrossRef]
20. Crosnoe, R. Friendships in Childhood and Adolescence: The Life Course and New Directions. Soc. Psychol. Q. 2000, 63, 377–391. [CrossRef]
21. Goosby, B.J.; Bellatorre, A.; Walsemann, K.M.; Cheadle, J.E. Adolescent Loneliness and Health in Early Adulthood. Sociol. Inq. 2013, 83, 505–536. [CrossRef]
22. Hagerty, B.M.; Williams, R.A. The effects of sense of belonging, social support, conflict, and loneliness on depression. Nurs. Res. 1999, 48, 215–219. [CrossRef]
23. Douglas, P.K.; Douglas, D.B.; Harrigan, D.C.; Douglas, K.M. Preparing for pandemic influenza and its aftermath: Mental health issues considered. Int. J. Emerg. Ment. Health 2009, 11, 137–144.
24. Granville-Garcia, A.F.; Alves-Clementino, M.; Da Nóbrega, M.; Targino-Firmino, R.; Lima, G.; Lins, M.B. Alcohol consumption among adolescents. Cienc. Saude Coletiva 2014, 19, 7–16. [CrossRef]
25. Grant, J.E.; Lust, K.; Chamberlain, S.R. Problematic smartphone use associated with greater alcohol consumption, mental health issues, poorer academic performance, and impulsivity. J. Behav. Addict. 2019, 8, 335–342. [CrossRef]
26. DeWall, N.; Pond, R.S. Loneliness and smoking: The costs of the desire to reconnect. Self Identity 2011, 10, 375–385. [CrossRef]
27. Rogers, P.D.; Harris, J.; Jarmuskewicz, J. Alcohol and adolescence. Pediatr. Clin. N. Am. 1987, 34, 289–303. [CrossRef]
28. Schulte, M.T.; Ramo, D.; Brown, S.A. Gender differences in factors influencing alcohol use and drinking progression among adolescents. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2009, 29, 535–547. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. Erol, A.; Karpyak, V.M. Sex and gender-related differences in alcohol use and its consequences: Contemporary knowledge and future research considerations. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015, 156, 1–13. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. Hilgert, J.B.; Hugo, F.N.; Bandeira, D.R.; Bozzetti, M.C. Stress, cortisol, and periodontitis in a population aged 50 years and over. J. Dent. Res. 2006, 85, 324–328. [CrossRef]
31. Kashdan, T.B.; Rottenberg, J. Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2010, 30, 865–878. [CrossRef]
32. Arslan, G.; Yıldırım, M.; Tanhan, A.; Bulu¸s, M.; Allen, K.A. Coronavirus Stress, Optimism-Pessimism, Psychological Inflexibility, and Psychological Health: Psychometric Properties of the Coronavirus Stress Measure. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. 2020, 4, 1–17.
33. Beltrán-Velasco, A.I.; Mendoza-Castejón, D.; Fuentes-García, J.P.; Clemente-Suárez, V.J. Behavioural, psychological, and physiological stress markers and academic performance in immigrant and non-immigrant preschool and school students. Physiol. Behav. 2020, 225, 113081. [CrossRef]
34. Ramírez-Adrados, A.; Beltrán-Velasco, A.I.; Gonzalez-de-Ramos, C.; Fernández-Martínez, S.; Martinez-Pascual, B.; FernándezElías, V.E.; Clemente-Suárez, V.J. The effect of final dissertation defense language, native vs. non-native, in the psychophysiological stress response of university students. Physiol. Behavior. 2020, 224, 113043. [CrossRef]
35. Tanhan, A.; Yavuz, K.F.; Young, J.S.; Nalbant, A.; Arslan, G.; Yıldırım, M.; Ulusoy, S.; Genç, E.; U ˘gur, E.; Çiçek, ˙I. A Proposed Framework Based on Literature Review of Online Contextual Mental Health Services to Enhance Wellbeing and Address Psychopathology During COVID-19. Electron. J. Gen. Med. 2020, 17, em254. [CrossRef]
36. Von Bothmer, M.I.; Fridlund, B. Gender differences in health habits and in motivation for a healthy lifestyle among Swedish university students. Nurs. Health Sci. 2005, 7, 107–118. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
37. Gómez-Donoso, C.; Sánchez-Villegas, A.; Martínez-González, M.A.; Gea, A.; Mendonça, R.D.; Lahortiga-Ramos, F.; Bes-Rastrollo, M. Ultra-processed food consumption and the incidence of depression in a Mediterranean cohort: The SUN Project. Eur. J. Nutr. 2020, 59, 1093–1103. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
38. Ulrich-Lai, Y.M.; Fulton, S.; Wilson, M.; Petrovich, G.; Rinaman, L. Stress exposure, food intake and emotional state. Stress 2015, 8, 381–399.
39. Sandín, B.; Valiente, R.M.; García-Escalera, J.; Chorot, P. Impacto psicológico de la pandemia de COVID-19: Efectos negativos y positivos en población española asociados al periodo de confinamiento nacional. Rev. Psicopatol. Psicol. Clin. 2020, 25, 1–22. [CrossRef]
40. De Ridder, D.; Kroese, F.; Evers, C.; Adriaanse, M.; Gillebaart, M. Healthy diet: Health impact, prevalence, correlates, and interventions. Psychol. Health 2017, 32, 907–941. [CrossRef]
41. Asigbee, F.M.; Whitney, S.D.; Peterson, C.E. The Link Between Nutrition and Physical Activity in Increasing Academic Achievement. J. Sch. Health 2018, 88, 407–415. [CrossRef]
42. O’Neil, A.; Quirk, S.E.; Housden, S.; Brennan, S.L.; Williams, L.J.; Pasco, J.A.; Berk, M.; Jacka, F.N. Relationship between diet and mental health in children and adolescents: A systematic review. Am. J. Public Health 2014, 104, 31–42. [CrossRef]
43. Dinan, T.G.; Cryan, J.F. The microbiome-gut-brain axis in health and disease. Gastroenterol. Clin. 2017, 46, 77–89. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Redondo-Flórez, L.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F.; Ramos-Campo, D.J.; Clemente-Suárez, V.J. Gender differences in stress-and burnoutrelated factors of university professors. BioMed Res. Int. 2020, 2020, 6687358. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
45. Redondo-Flórez, L.; Fernández-Lucas, J.; Clemente-Suárez, V.J. Cultural differences in stress-related psychological, nutrition, physical activity and oral health factors of professors. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3644. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
46. Beltrán-Velasco, A.I.; Bellido-Esteban, A.; Ruisoto-Palomera, P.; Mendoza, K.H.; Clemente-Suárez, V.J. The Effect of Cultural Differences in Psychophysiological Stress Response in High Education Context: A Pilot Study. Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback 2020, 45, 23–29. [CrossRef]
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spelling Martín Rodríguez, AlexandraTornero Aguilera, José FranciscoLópez-Pérez, P. JavierClemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier2021-10-19T22:48:40Z2021-10-19T22:48:40Z2021-09-132076-3417https://hdl.handle.net/11323/8790https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188499Corporación Universidad de la CostaREDICUC - Repositorio CUChttps://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/This research aimed to explore gender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during the COVID-19 pandemic. In order to achieve the study’s aim, 127 adolescent students (17.61 ± 7.43 years) completed an online questionnaire which analysed variables regarding their psychological, nutritional, oral health, and physical activity profiles and habits during the COVID-19 crisis. Students showed a higher weekly alcohol consumption and higher levels of loneliness perception when alcohol consumption was lower. In addition, experimental avoidance and psychological inflexibility values were lower when the perception of having dry mouth or lack of saliva is higher. The results also show that males presented a more varied intake of food than females and a stronger adherence to physical activity routines. Female students presented a lower number of meals per day when beer and alcohol consumption was higher, and a higher tendency for fat- and sugar-rich foods such as fast food or bakery products than males. Regarding the oral health profile, females showed higher values in daily tooth brushing and no significant differences were found in dry mouth and gastritis variables. The results from the present study could be used by various educational institutions to implement multidisciplinary interventions to develop healthier habits.Martín Rodríguez, AlexandraTornero Aguilera, José Francisco-will be generated-orcid-0000-0002-0747-8133-600López-Pérez, P. JavierClemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier-will be generated-orcid-0000-0002-2397-2801-600application/pdfengCorporación Universidad de la CostaCC0 1.0 Universalhttp://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccesshttp://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2Applied Scienceshttps://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/11/18/8499Gender differencesCOVID-19StudentsLonelinessPsychological inflexibilityExperiential avoidanceGender differences in nutritional, odontological and psychological patterns of adolescent students during COVID-19 pandemicArtículo de revistahttp://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_2df8fbb1Textinfo:eu-repo/semantics/articlehttp://purl.org/redcol/resource_type/ARTinfo:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersion1. WHO—World Health Organization. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard; WHO: Cham, Switzerland, 2020.2. Guessoum, S.B.; Lachal, J.; Radjack, R.; Carretier, E.; Minassian, S.; Benoit, L.; Moro, M.R. Adolescent psychiatric disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 291, 113264. [CrossRef]3. Peña-Romero, A.C.; Navas-Carrillo, D.; Marín, F.; Orenes-Piñero, E. The future of nutrition: Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics in obesity and cardiovascular diseases. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2018, 58, 3030–3041. [CrossRef] [PubMed]4. Das, J.K.; Salam, R.A.; Thornburg, K.L.; Prentice, A.M.; Campisi, S.; Lassi, Z.S.; Koletzko, B.; Bhutta, Z.A. Nutrition in adolescents: Physiology, metabolism, and nutritional needs. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2017, 1393, 21–33. [CrossRef]5. Salam, R.A.; Das, J.K.; Ahmed, W.; Irfan, O.; Sheikh, S.S.; Bhutta, Z.A. Effects of Preventive Nutrition Interventions among Adolescents on Health and Nutritional Status in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients 2019, 12, 49. [CrossRef]6. Clemente-Suárez, V.J.; Dalamitros, A.A.; Beltran-Velasco, A.I.; Mielgo-Ayuso, J.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F. Social and psychophysiological consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic: An extensive literature review. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 3077. [CrossRef] [PubMed]7. Odriozola-González, P.; Planchuelo-Gómez, Á.; Irurtia, M.J.; de Luis-García, R. Psychological effects of the COVID-19 outbreak and lockdown among students and workers of a Spanish university. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 290, 113108. [CrossRef]8. Gao, W.; Ping, S.; Liu, X. Gender differences in depression, anxiety, and stress among college students: A longitudinal study from China. J. Affect. Disord. 2020, 263, 292–300. [CrossRef] [PubMed]9. Soh, N.L.; Walter, G.; Baur, L.; Collins, C. Nutrition, mood and behaviour: A review. Acta Neuropsychiatr. 2009, 21, 214–227. [CrossRef] [PubMed]10. Kris-Etherton, P.M.; Petersen, K.S.; Hibbeln, J.R.; Hurley, D.; Kolick, V.; Peoples, S.; Rodriguez, N.; Woodward-Lopez, G. Nutrition and behavioral health disorders: Depression and anxiety. Nutr. Rev. 2021, 79, 247–260. [CrossRef] [PubMed]11. Ferry, M.; Sidobre, B.; Lambertin, A.; Barberger-Gateau, P. The SOLINUT study: Analysis of the interaction between nutrition and loneliness in persons aged over 70 years. J. Nutr. Health Aging 2005, 9, 261–268.12. Cao, W.; Fang, Z.; Hou, G.; Han, M.; Xu, X.; Dong, J.; Zheng, J. The psychological impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in China. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 287, 112934. [CrossRef]13. Luzzi, V.; Ierardo, G.; Bossù, M.; Polimeni, A. COVID-19: Pediatric Oral Health During and After the Pandemics. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1–8. [CrossRef]14. Lam, R. Epidemiology and outcomes of traumatic dental injuries: A review of the literature. Aust. Dent. J. 2016, 61, 4–20. [CrossRef]15. Mobley, C.C. Nutrition and dental caries. Dent. Clin. 2003, 47, 319–336. [CrossRef]16. Batlle-Bayer, L.; Aldaco, R.; Bala, A.; Puig, R.; Laso, J.; Margallo, M.; Vázquez-Rowe, I.; Antó, J.M.; Fullana-I-Palmer, P. Environmental and nutritional impacts of dietary changes in Spain during the COVID-19 lockdown. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 748, 141410. [CrossRef] [PubMed]17. Clemente-Suárez, V.J.; Ramos-Campo, D.J.; Mielgo-Ayuso, J.; Dalamitros, A.A.; Nikolaidis, P.A.; Hormeño-Holgado, A.; TorneroAguilera, J.F. Nutrition in the Actual COVID-19 Pandemic. A Narrative Review. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1924.18. Clemente-Suárez, V.J.; Hormeño-Holgado, A.; Jiménez, M.; Benitez-Agudelo, J.C.; Navarro-Jiménez, E.; Perez-Palencia, N.; Maestre-Serrano, R.; Laborde-Cárdenas, C.; Tornero-Aguilera, J.F. Dynamics of Population Immunity Due to the Herd Effect in the COVID-19 Pandemic. Vaccines 2020, 8, 236. [CrossRef]19. Vanderbruggen, N.; Matthys, F.; Van Laere, S.; Zeeuws, D.; Santermans, L.; Van den Ameele, S.; Crunelle, C.L. Self-Reported Alcohol, Tobacco, and Cannabis Use during COVID-19 Lockdown Measures: Results from a Web-Based Survey. Eur. Addict. Res. 2020, 26, 309–315. [CrossRef]20. Crosnoe, R. 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