Community-Based Tourism in Developing Countries: A Framework for Policy Evaluation
Many developing countries have recognized the potential of their natural resources for the development of tourism. However, the policies designed to provide a framework for socially inclusive and ecologically sound tourism turn out to be weak in fostering community-based tourism (CBT). There is a sp...
- Autores:
-
Yanes, Andrea
Zielinski, Seweryn
Diaz Cano, Marlenny
Kim, Seong-il
- Tipo de recurso:
- Article of journal
- Fecha de publicación:
- 2019
- Institución:
- Corporación Universidad de la Costa
- Repositorio:
- REDICUC - Repositorio CUC
- Idioma:
- eng
- OAI Identifier:
- oai:repositorio.cuc.edu.co:11323/4942
- Acceso en línea:
- http://hdl.handle.net/11323/4942
https://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/
- Palabra clave:
- community-based tourism
policy
Colombia
participation
- Rights
- openAccess
- License
- CC0 1.0 Universal
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Community-Based Tourism in Developing Countries: A Framework for Policy Evaluation |
| title |
Community-Based Tourism in Developing Countries: A Framework for Policy Evaluation |
| spellingShingle |
Community-Based Tourism in Developing Countries: A Framework for Policy Evaluation community-based tourism policy Colombia participation |
| title_short |
Community-Based Tourism in Developing Countries: A Framework for Policy Evaluation |
| title_full |
Community-Based Tourism in Developing Countries: A Framework for Policy Evaluation |
| title_fullStr |
Community-Based Tourism in Developing Countries: A Framework for Policy Evaluation |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Community-Based Tourism in Developing Countries: A Framework for Policy Evaluation |
| title_sort |
Community-Based Tourism in Developing Countries: A Framework for Policy Evaluation |
| dc.creator.fl_str_mv |
Yanes, Andrea Zielinski, Seweryn Diaz Cano, Marlenny Kim, Seong-il |
| dc.contributor.author.spa.fl_str_mv |
Yanes, Andrea Zielinski, Seweryn Diaz Cano, Marlenny Kim, Seong-il |
| dc.subject.spa.fl_str_mv |
community-based tourism policy Colombia participation |
| topic |
community-based tourism policy Colombia participation |
| description |
Many developing countries have recognized the potential of their natural resources for the development of tourism. However, the policies designed to provide a framework for socially inclusive and ecologically sound tourism turn out to be weak in fostering community-based tourism (CBT). There is a spectrum of conditions that lead to success or failure of CBT initiatives that should be accounted for by national policies to ensure meaningful community engagement. This paper proposes a framework for the evaluation of tourism policy documents based on factors that facilitate and constrain CBT in developing countries. The framework was applied to seven tourism policy documents in Colombia using a content analysis approach. The results showed that the policies are weak in providing a base for community engagement in CBT. International experiences indicate that the barriers to CBT are similar throughout the world; thus, the framework is useful in the evaluation of policy documents in other developing countries. |
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2019 |
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2019-07-11T15:55:50Z |
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2019-07-11T15:55:50Z |
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2019-04-26 |
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Artículo de revista |
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eng |
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https://doi.org/10.3390/su11092506 |
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1. UNWTO—United Nations World Tourism Organization. Making Tourism More Sustainable: A Guide for Policy Makers; UNWTO: Madrid, Spain, 2005. 2. Tosun, C. Expected nature of community participation in tourism development. Tour. Manag. 2006, 27, 493–504. [CrossRef] 3. Dubnick, M. Thinking about Public Policy: A Problem-Solving Approach; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1983. 4. Habermas, J. Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy; Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1996. 5. Simpson, M.C. Community benefit tourism initiatives—A conceptual oxymoron? Tour. Manag. 2008, 29, 1–18. [CrossRef] 6. Airey, D. Developments in understanding tourism policy. Tour. Rev. 2015, 70, 246–258. [CrossRef] 7. Spenceley, A. Local impacts of community-based tourism in Southern Africa. In Responsible Tourism: Critical Issues for Conservation and Development; Spenceley, A., Ed.; Earthscan: London, UK, 2008; pp. 285–303. 8. Tosun, C. Limits to community participation in the tourism development process in developing countries. Tour. Manag. 2000, 21, 613–633. [CrossRef] 9. Arnstein, S.R. A ladder of citizenship participation. J. Am. Plan. 1969, 35, 216–224. [CrossRef] 10. Choguill, M.B.G. A ladder of community participation for underdeveloped countries. Habitat Int. 1996, 20, 431–444. [CrossRef] 11. Goetz, A.; Gaventa, J. Bringing Citizen Voice and Client Focus into Service Delivery; Institute of Development Studies: Brighton, UK, 2001. 12. Lawrence, A. No personal motive? Volunteers, biodiversity, and the false dichotomies of participation. Ethics Place Environ. 2006, 9, 279–298. [CrossRef] 13. Honey, M. Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? 2nd ed.; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2008. 14. Reimer, J.K.; Walter, P. How do you know it when you see it? Community-based ecotourism in the Cardamom Mountains of southwestern Cambodia. Tour. Manag. 2013, 34, 122–132. [CrossRef] 15. Scheyvens, R. Ecotourism and the empowerment of local communities. Tour. Manag. 1999, 20, 245–249. [CrossRef] 16. Choi, H.S.; Sirikaya, E. Measuring residents’ attitude toward sustainable tourism: Development of sustainable tourism attitude scale. J. Travel Res. 2005, 43, 380–394. [CrossRef] 17. Manyara, G.; Jones, E. Community-based tourism enterprises development in Kenya: An exploration of their potential as avenues of poverty reduction. J. Sustain. Tour. 2007, 15, 628–644. [CrossRef] 18. Goodwin, H.; Santilli, R. Community Based Tourism: A Success? International Centre for Responsible Tourism: Faversham, UK, 2009. 19. Li, W.J. Community decisionmaking—Participation in development. Ann. Tour. Res. 2006, 33, 132–143. [CrossRef] 20. Murphy, C. Community Tourism in Kuene: A Review of Five Case Studies for the WILD Project Directorate of Environmental Affairs; Research Discussion Paper No. 64; Ministry of Environment and Tourism: Windhoek, Namibia, 2003. 21. Cole, S. Information and empowerment: The keys to achieving sustainable tourism. J. Sustain. Tour. 2006, 14, 629–644. [CrossRef] 22. Blackstock, K. A critical look at community based tourism. Community Dev. J. 2005, 40, 39–49. [CrossRef] 23. Kiss, A. Is community-based ecotourism a good use of biodiversity conservation funds? Trends Ecol. Evol. 2004, 19, 232–237. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 24. Salazar, N.B. Community-based cultural tourism: Issues, threats and opportunities. J. Sustain. Tour. 2012, 20, 9–22. [CrossRef] 25. Bramwell, B.; Meyer, D. Power and tourism policy relations in transition. Ann. Tour. Res. 2007, 34, 766–788. [CrossRef] 26. Lindblom, C.E. The Policy-Making Process; Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 1993. 27. Ramos, A.M.; Prideaux, B. Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest of Palenque: Empowerment issues in sustainable development. J. Sustain. Tour. 2014, 22, 461–479. [CrossRef] 28. Coria, J.; Calfucura, E. Ecotourism and the development of indigenous communities: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Ecol. Econ. 2012, 73, 47–55. [CrossRef] 29. Stevenson, N.; Airey, D.; Miller, G. Tourism policy making: The Policymakers’ Perspectives. Ann. Tour. Res. 2008, 35, 732–750. [CrossRef] 30. Dredge, D.; Jamal, T. Progress in tourism planning and policy: A post-structural perspective on knowledge production. Tour. Manag. 2015, 51, 285–297. [CrossRef] 31. Hill, M.; Hupe, P. Implementing Public Policy; Sage: London, UK, 2009. 32. Michael, E. Public choice and tourism analysis. Curr. Issues Tour. 2001, 4, 308–330. [CrossRef] 33. Mayring, P. Qualitative Content Analysis: Theoretical Foundation, Basic Procedures and Software Solution; Monograph: Klagenfurt, Austria, 2014. 34. Assarroudi, A.; Nabavi, F.H.; Armat, M.R.; Ebadi, A.; Vaismoradi, M. Directed qualitative content analysis: The description and elaboration of its underpinning methods and data analysis process. J. Res. Nurs. 2018, 23, 42–55. [CrossRef] 35. Lepp, A. Residents’ attitudes towards tourism in Bigodi village, Uganda. Tour. Manag. 2007, 28, 876–885. [CrossRef] 36. Matarrita-Cascante, D.; Brennan, M.A.; Luloff, A.E. Community agency and sustainable tourism development: The case of La Fortuna, Costa Rica. J. Sustain. Tour. 2010, 18, 735–756. [CrossRef] 37. Dangi, T.B.; Jamal, T. An Integrated Approach to “Sustainable Community-Based Tourism”. Sustainability 2016, 8, 475. [CrossRef] 38. Dodds, R.; Ali, A.; Galaski, K. Mobilizing knowledge: Determining key elements for success and pitfalls in developing community-based tourism. Curr. Issues Tour. 2018, 21, 1547–1568. [CrossRef] 39. Lane, B.; Kastenholz, E. Rural tourism: The evolution of practice and research approaches—Towards a new generation concept? J. Sustain. Tour. 2015, 23, 1133–1156. [CrossRef] 40. Whitford, M.; Ruhanen, L. Indigenous tourism research, past and present: Where to from here? J. Sustain. Tour. 2016, 24, 1080–1099. [CrossRef] 41. Zielinski, S.; Kim, S.I.; Botero, C.M.; Yanes, A. Factors that facilitate and inhibit community-based tourism initiatives in developing countries. Curr. Issues Tour. 2018. [CrossRef] 42. Ministerio de Comercio, Industria y Turismo. Política para el Desarrollo del Ecoturismo [Ecotourism Development Policy]; MCIT: Bogota, Colombia, 2003. 43. Ministerio de Comercio, Industria y Turismo. Política para el Desarrollo del Turismo Comunitario [Community-Based Tourism Development Policy]; MCIT: Bogota, Colombia, 2011. 44. Simmons, D.G. Community Participation in Tourism Planning. Tour. Manag. 1994, 15, 98–108. [CrossRef] 45. Departamento Nacional de Planeación. Documento 3296—Lineamientos para Promover la Participación Privada en la Prestación de Servicios Ecoturísticos en el Sistema de Parques Nacionales Naturales—SPNN [Guidelines to Promote Private Participation in the Provision of Ecotourism Services in National Parks]; CONPES: Bogota, Colombia, 2004. 46. Ashley, C. The Impacts of Tourism on Rural Livelihoods: Namibia’s Experience; Working Paper 128; Overseas Development Institute: London, UK, 2000. 47. Departamento Nacional de Planeación. Documento 3397—Política Sectorial de Turismo [Document No. 3397—Sectorial Tourism Policy]; CONPES: Bogota, Colombia, 2005. 48. UNDP—United Nations Development Programme. Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for All; UNDP: New York, NY, USA, 2011. 49. Jamal, T.; Camargo, B.A. Sustainable tourism, justice and an ethic of care: Toward the Just Destination. J. Sustain. Tour. 2014, 22, 11–30. [CrossRef] 50. Saufi, A.; O’Brien, D.; Wilkins, H. Inhibitors to host community participation in sustainable tourism development in developing countries. J. Sustain. Tour. 2014, 22, 801–820. [CrossRef] 51. Fallon, F. After the Lombok riots, is sustainable tourism achieved? In Safety and Security in Tourism: Relationships, Management, and Marketing; Hall, C.M., Timothy, D.J., Duval, D., Eds.; Haworth Hospitality Press: Binghamton, NY, USA, 2003; pp. 139–158. 52. Sharpley, R.; Telfer, D.J. Tourism and Development: Concepts and Issues; Channel View Publications: Clevendon, UK, 2002. 53. Timothy, D.J.; White, K. Community-based ecotourism development on the periphery of Belize. Curr. Issues Tour. 1999, 2, 226–242. [CrossRef] 54. Rozemeijer, N. Community-Based Tourism in Botswana: The SNV Experience in 3 Community Tourism Projects; SNV/IUCN CBNRM Support Programme: Gaborone, Botswana, 2000. 55. Willis, K. Imposed structures and contested meanings-politics of public participation. Aust. J. Soc. Sci. 1995, 30, 211–227. [CrossRef] 56. Sofield, T.H. Empowerment for Sustainable Tourism Development; Elsevier Science: Oxford, UK, 2003. 57. Reed, M.G. Power relations and community-based tourism planning. Ann. Tour. Res. 1997, 24, 566–591. [CrossRef] 58. Han, G.S.; Wu, P.L.; Huang, Y.W.; Yang, Z. Tourism development and the disempowerment of host residents: Types and formative mechanisms. Tour. Geogr. 2014, 16, 717–740. [CrossRef] 59. Fuller, A.M.; Reid, D.G. Rural tourism planning: A community development approach. In Rural Rehabilitation: A Modern Perspective; Smith, S., Ed.; Bow River: Arnaudville, LA, USA, 1998; pp. 260–274. 60. Trentelman, C.K. Place Attachment and Community Attachment: A Primer Grounded in the Lived Experience of a Community Sociologist. Soc. Nat. Resour. 2009, 22, 191–210. [CrossRef] 61. Buta, N.; Holland, S.M.; Kyriaki, K. Local communities and protected areas: The mediating role of place attachment for pro-environmental civic engagement. J. Outdoor Recreat. Tour. 2014, 5–6, 1–10. [CrossRef] 62. SCBD—Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Handbook of the Convention on Biological Diversity Including Its Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 3rd ed.; SCBD: Montreal, QC, Canada, 2005. 63. McIntyre, G.; Hetherington, A.; Inskeep, E. Sustainable Tourism Development: Guide for Local Planners; UNWTO: Madrid, Spain, 1993. 64. Brennan, M.A.; Flint, C.G.; Luloff, A.E. Bringing Together Local Culture and Rural Development: Findings from Ireland, Pennsylvania and Alaska. Soc. Rural. 2009, 49, 97–112. [CrossRef] 65. Wunder, S. Promoting Forest Conservation through Ecotourism Income? A Case Study from the Ecuadorian Amazon Region; Occasional Paper No. 21; Center for International Forestry Research: Jakarta, Indonesia, 2000. 66. Moscardo, G. Building community capacity for tourism development: Conclusion. In Building Community Capacity for Tourism Development; Moscardo, G., Ed.; CAB International: Wallingford, UK, 2008; pp. 172–179. 67. Singh, S. Indian tourism: Policy, performance and pitfalls. In Tourism and the Less Developed World: Issues and Case Studies; Harrison, D., Ed.; CABI: Oxford, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2001; pp. 137–150. 68. Airey, D.; Chong, K. National Policy-Makers for Tourism in China. Ann. Tour. Res. 2010, 37, 295–314. [CrossRef] 69. Jamal, T.; Getz, D. Community roundtables for tourism-related conflicts: The dialectics of consensus and process structures. J. Sustain. Tour. 1999, 7, 290–313. [CrossRef] 70. Bramwell, B.; Sharman, A. Collaboration in local tourism policymaking. Ann. Tour. Res. 1999, 26, 392–415. [CrossRef] 71. Dredge, D. Policy networks and the local organisation of tourism. Tour. Manag. 2006, 27, 269–280. [CrossRef] 72. Jamal, T.B.; Getz, D. Collaboration Theory and Community Tourism Planning. Ann. Tour. Res. 1995, 22, 186–204. [CrossRef] 73. Hall, C.M.; Jenkins, J.M. Tourism and Public Policy; Routledge: London, UK; New York, NY, USA, 1995. 74. Fazito, M.; Scott, M.; Russell, P. The dynamics of tourism discourses and policy in Brazil. Ann. Tour. Res. 2016, 57, 1–17. [CrossRef] |
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Yanes, Andreab5a5623e0161af66fa476ed02d0ac3a5300Zielinski, Seweryn7af74dd4a031dd3d6fbc61d51a7ff1fcDiaz Cano, Marlennyde78c49069ceeae669a40fdb3ac2044aKim, Seong-il1004d9426dcc6cb7a74f8e34ea5bbb7c2019-07-11T15:55:50Z2019-07-11T15:55:50Z2019-04-262071-1050http://hdl.handle.net/11323/4942Corporación Universidad de la CostaREDICUC - Repositorio CUChttps://repositorio.cuc.edu.co/Many developing countries have recognized the potential of their natural resources for the development of tourism. However, the policies designed to provide a framework for socially inclusive and ecologically sound tourism turn out to be weak in fostering community-based tourism (CBT). There is a spectrum of conditions that lead to success or failure of CBT initiatives that should be accounted for by national policies to ensure meaningful community engagement. This paper proposes a framework for the evaluation of tourism policy documents based on factors that facilitate and constrain CBT in developing countries. The framework was applied to seven tourism policy documents in Colombia using a content analysis approach. The results showed that the policies are weak in providing a base for community engagement in CBT. International experiences indicate that the barriers to CBT are similar throughout the world; thus, the framework is useful in the evaluation of policy documents in other developing countries.engsustainabilityhttps://doi.org/10.3390/su110925061. UNWTO—United Nations World Tourism Organization. Making Tourism More Sustainable: A Guide for Policy Makers; UNWTO: Madrid, Spain, 2005. 2. Tosun, C. Expected nature of community participation in tourism development. Tour. Manag. 2006, 27, 493–504. [CrossRef] 3. Dubnick, M. Thinking about Public Policy: A Problem-Solving Approach; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1983. 4. Habermas, J. Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy; Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1996. 5. Simpson, M.C. Community benefit tourism initiatives—A conceptual oxymoron? Tour. Manag. 2008, 29, 1–18. [CrossRef] 6. Airey, D. Developments in understanding tourism policy. Tour. Rev. 2015, 70, 246–258. [CrossRef] 7. Spenceley, A. Local impacts of community-based tourism in Southern Africa. In Responsible Tourism: Critical Issues for Conservation and Development; Spenceley, A., Ed.; Earthscan: London, UK, 2008; pp. 285–303. 8. Tosun, C. Limits to community participation in the tourism development process in developing countries. Tour. Manag. 2000, 21, 613–633. [CrossRef] 9. Arnstein, S.R. A ladder of citizenship participation. J. Am. Plan. 1969, 35, 216–224. [CrossRef] 10. Choguill, M.B.G. A ladder of community participation for underdeveloped countries. Habitat Int. 1996, 20, 431–444. [CrossRef] 11. Goetz, A.; Gaventa, J. Bringing Citizen Voice and Client Focus into Service Delivery; Institute of Development Studies: Brighton, UK, 2001. 12. Lawrence, A. No personal motive? Volunteers, biodiversity, and the false dichotomies of participation. Ethics Place Environ. 2006, 9, 279–298. [CrossRef] 13. Honey, M. Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? 2nd ed.; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2008. 14. Reimer, J.K.; Walter, P. How do you know it when you see it? Community-based ecotourism in the Cardamom Mountains of southwestern Cambodia. Tour. Manag. 2013, 34, 122–132. [CrossRef] 15. Scheyvens, R. Ecotourism and the empowerment of local communities. Tour. Manag. 1999, 20, 245–249. [CrossRef] 16. Choi, H.S.; Sirikaya, E. Measuring residents’ attitude toward sustainable tourism: Development of sustainable tourism attitude scale. J. Travel Res. 2005, 43, 380–394. [CrossRef] 17. Manyara, G.; Jones, E. Community-based tourism enterprises development in Kenya: An exploration of their potential as avenues of poverty reduction. J. Sustain. Tour. 2007, 15, 628–644. [CrossRef] 18. Goodwin, H.; Santilli, R. Community Based Tourism: A Success? International Centre for Responsible Tourism: Faversham, UK, 2009. 19. Li, W.J. Community decisionmaking—Participation in development. Ann. Tour. Res. 2006, 33, 132–143. [CrossRef] 20. Murphy, C. Community Tourism in Kuene: A Review of Five Case Studies for the WILD Project Directorate of Environmental Affairs; Research Discussion Paper No. 64; Ministry of Environment and Tourism: Windhoek, Namibia, 2003. 21. Cole, S. Information and empowerment: The keys to achieving sustainable tourism. J. Sustain. Tour. 2006, 14, 629–644. [CrossRef] 22. Blackstock, K. A critical look at community based tourism. Community Dev. J. 2005, 40, 39–49. [CrossRef] 23. Kiss, A. Is community-based ecotourism a good use of biodiversity conservation funds? Trends Ecol. Evol. 2004, 19, 232–237. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 24. Salazar, N.B. Community-based cultural tourism: Issues, threats and opportunities. J. Sustain. Tour. 2012, 20, 9–22. [CrossRef] 25. Bramwell, B.; Meyer, D. Power and tourism policy relations in transition. Ann. Tour. Res. 2007, 34, 766–788. [CrossRef] 26. Lindblom, C.E. The Policy-Making Process; Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 1993. 27. Ramos, A.M.; Prideaux, B. Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest of Palenque: Empowerment issues in sustainable development. J. Sustain. Tour. 2014, 22, 461–479. [CrossRef] 28. Coria, J.; Calfucura, E. Ecotourism and the development of indigenous communities: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Ecol. Econ. 2012, 73, 47–55. [CrossRef] 29. Stevenson, N.; Airey, D.; Miller, G. Tourism policy making: The Policymakers’ Perspectives. Ann. Tour. Res. 2008, 35, 732–750. [CrossRef] 30. Dredge, D.; Jamal, T. Progress in tourism planning and policy: A post-structural perspective on knowledge production. Tour. Manag. 2015, 51, 285–297. [CrossRef] 31. Hill, M.; Hupe, P. Implementing Public Policy; Sage: London, UK, 2009. 32. Michael, E. Public choice and tourism analysis. Curr. Issues Tour. 2001, 4, 308–330. [CrossRef] 33. Mayring, P. Qualitative Content Analysis: Theoretical Foundation, Basic Procedures and Software Solution; Monograph: Klagenfurt, Austria, 2014. 34. Assarroudi, A.; Nabavi, F.H.; Armat, M.R.; Ebadi, A.; Vaismoradi, M. Directed qualitative content analysis: The description and elaboration of its underpinning methods and data analysis process. J. Res. Nurs. 2018, 23, 42–55. [CrossRef] 35. Lepp, A. Residents’ attitudes towards tourism in Bigodi village, Uganda. Tour. Manag. 2007, 28, 876–885. [CrossRef] 36. Matarrita-Cascante, D.; Brennan, M.A.; Luloff, A.E. Community agency and sustainable tourism development: The case of La Fortuna, Costa Rica. J. Sustain. Tour. 2010, 18, 735–756. [CrossRef] 37. Dangi, T.B.; Jamal, T. An Integrated Approach to “Sustainable Community-Based Tourism”. Sustainability 2016, 8, 475. [CrossRef] 38. Dodds, R.; Ali, A.; Galaski, K. Mobilizing knowledge: Determining key elements for success and pitfalls in developing community-based tourism. Curr. Issues Tour. 2018, 21, 1547–1568. [CrossRef] 39. Lane, B.; Kastenholz, E. Rural tourism: The evolution of practice and research approaches—Towards a new generation concept? J. Sustain. Tour. 2015, 23, 1133–1156. [CrossRef] 40. Whitford, M.; Ruhanen, L. Indigenous tourism research, past and present: Where to from here? J. Sustain. Tour. 2016, 24, 1080–1099. [CrossRef] 41. Zielinski, S.; Kim, S.I.; Botero, C.M.; Yanes, A. Factors that facilitate and inhibit community-based tourism initiatives in developing countries. Curr. Issues Tour. 2018. [CrossRef] 42. Ministerio de Comercio, Industria y Turismo. Política para el Desarrollo del Ecoturismo [Ecotourism Development Policy]; MCIT: Bogota, Colombia, 2003. 43. Ministerio de Comercio, Industria y Turismo. Política para el Desarrollo del Turismo Comunitario [Community-Based Tourism Development Policy]; MCIT: Bogota, Colombia, 2011. 44. Simmons, D.G. Community Participation in Tourism Planning. Tour. Manag. 1994, 15, 98–108. [CrossRef] 45. Departamento Nacional de Planeación. Documento 3296—Lineamientos para Promover la Participación Privada en la Prestación de Servicios Ecoturísticos en el Sistema de Parques Nacionales Naturales—SPNN [Guidelines to Promote Private Participation in the Provision of Ecotourism Services in National Parks]; CONPES: Bogota, Colombia, 2004. 46. Ashley, C. The Impacts of Tourism on Rural Livelihoods: Namibia’s Experience; Working Paper 128; Overseas Development Institute: London, UK, 2000. 47. Departamento Nacional de Planeación. 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