Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach
Abstract: Bacterial adhesion to surfaces is the first step in biofilm formation, which leads to the development of conditions that may compromise the health status of patients. Surface modification has been proposed to reduce bacterial adhesion to biomaterials. The objective of this work was to asse...
- Autores:
-
Arango Santander, Santiago
Serna, Lina
Sánchez Garzón, Juliana del Pilar
Franco Aguirre, John Querubín
- Tipo de recurso:
- Article of journal
- Fecha de publicación:
- 2021
- Institución:
- Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia
- Repositorio:
- Repositorio UCC
- Idioma:
- OAI Identifier:
- oai:repository.ucc.edu.co:20.500.12494/35308
- Palabra clave:
- Surface topography
Bacterial adhesion
Biomimetics
Soft lithography
Surface modification
TG 2021 EOF
- Rights
- openAccess
- License
- Atribución
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| dc.title.spa.fl_str_mv |
Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach |
| title |
Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach |
| spellingShingle |
Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach Surface topography Bacterial adhesion Biomimetics Soft lithography Surface modification TG 2021 EOF |
| title_short |
Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach |
| title_full |
Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach |
| title_fullStr |
Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach |
| title_sort |
Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach |
| dc.creator.fl_str_mv |
Arango Santander, Santiago Serna, Lina Sánchez Garzón, Juliana del Pilar Franco Aguirre, John Querubín |
| dc.contributor.advisor.none.fl_str_mv |
Arango Santander, Santiago |
| dc.contributor.author.none.fl_str_mv |
Arango Santander, Santiago Serna, Lina Sánchez Garzón, Juliana del Pilar Franco Aguirre, John Querubín |
| dc.subject.spa.fl_str_mv |
Surface topography Bacterial adhesion Biomimetics Soft lithography Surface modification |
| topic |
Surface topography Bacterial adhesion Biomimetics Soft lithography Surface modification TG 2021 EOF |
| dc.subject.classification.spa.fl_str_mv |
TG 2021 EOF |
| description |
Abstract: Bacterial adhesion to surfaces is the first step in biofilm formation, which leads to the development of conditions that may compromise the health status of patients. Surface modification has been proposed to reduce bacterial adhesion to biomaterials. The objective of this work was to assess and compare Streptococcus mutans adhesion to the surface of biomimetically-modified stainless steel using different topographies. Stainless steel plates were modified using a soft lithography technique following a biomimetic approach. The leaves from Colocasia esculenta, Crocosmia aurea and Salvinia molesta were used as surface models. Silica sol was synthesized using the sol-gel method. Following a soft lithography technique, the surface of the leaves were transferred to the surface of the SS plates. Natural and modified surfaces were characterized by means of atomic force microscopy and contact angle. Streptococcus mutans was used to assess bacterial adhesion. Contact angle measurements showed that natural leaves are highly hydrophobic, but such hydrophobicity could not be transferred to the metallic plates. Roughness varied among the leaves and increased after transference for C. esculenta and decreased for C. aurea. In general, two of the surface models used in this investigation showed positive results for reduction of bacterial adhesion (C. aurea and C. esculenta), while the other showed an increase in bacterial adhesion (S. molesta). Therefore, since a biomimetic approach using natural surfaces showed opposite results, careful selection of the surface model needs to be taken into consideration. |
| publishDate |
2021 |
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2021-07-14T22:06:13Z |
| dc.date.available.none.fl_str_mv |
2021-07-14T22:06:13Z |
| dc.date.issued.none.fl_str_mv |
2021-07-09 |
| dc.type.none.fl_str_mv |
Artículo |
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http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_2df8fbb1 |
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http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501 |
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http://purl.org/coar/version/c_970fb48d4fbd8a85 |
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info:eu-repo/semantics/article |
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info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion |
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2079-6412 |
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https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings11070829 |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12494/35308 |
| dc.identifier.bibliographicCitation.spa.fl_str_mv |
Arango-Santander, S.; Serna, L.; Sanchez-Garzon, J.; Franco, J. Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach. Coatings 2021, 11, 829. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings11070829 |
| identifier_str_mv |
2079-6412 Arango-Santander, S.; Serna, L.; Sanchez-Garzon, J.; Franco, J. Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach. Coatings 2021, 11, 829. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings11070829 |
| url |
https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings11070829 https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12494/35308 |
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https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6412/11/7/829#cite |
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Coatings |
| dc.relation.references.spa.fl_str_mv |
Robert, M.; Ezzell, J. Regulatory Affairs for Biomaterials and Medical Devices, 1st ed.; McGraw Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2014. Patel, N.R.; Gohil, P.P. A review on biomaterials: Scope, applications & human anatomy significance. IJETAE 2012, 2, 91–101. Watts, D. Orthodontic adhesive resins. In Orthodontic Material: Scientific and Clinical Aspects, 1st ed.; Thieme Medical Publ Inc.: Stuttgart, Germany, 2001; pp. 202–217. Oh, K.T.; Choo, S.U.; Kim, K.M.; Kim, K.N. A stainless steel bracket for orthodontic application. Eur. J. Orthod. 2005, 27, 237–244. Pérez, L.; Garmas, E. Mini implantes, una opción para el anclaje en ortodoncia. Gac. Médica Espirituana 2010, 12, 1–9. Uribe, G.; Aristiz, J.F. Metales y Alambres De Ortodoncia. In Ortodoncia Teoría y Clínica, 1st ed.; Marcolud: Bogota, Colombia, 2004; pp. 226–245. Ábalos, C. Adhesión bacteriana a biomateriales. Av. Odontoestomatol. 2005, 21, 347–353. Koch, K.; Barthlott,W. Superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic plant surfaces: An inspiration for biomimetic materials. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 2009, 367, 1487–1509. Berg, J.M.; Romoser, A.; Banerjee, N.; Zebda, R.; Sayes, C.M. The relationship between pH and zeta potential of ~30 nm metal oxide nanoparticle suspensions relevant to in vitro toxicological evaluations. Nanotoxicology 2009, 3, 276–283. Kiremitçi-Gümü, M. Microbial adhesion to ionogenic PHEMA, PU and PP implants. Biomaterials 1996, 17, 443–449 Abrams, G.A.; Teixeira, A.I.; Nealey, P.F.; Murphy, C.J. Effects of substratum topography on cell behavior. Biomim. Mater. Des. 2002, 33, 91–137. Zhang, X.; Wang, L.; Levänen, E. Superhydrophobic surfaces for the reduction of bacterial adhesion. RSC Adv. 2013, 3, 12003–12020. Pitts, N.B.; Zero, D.T.; Marsh, P.D.; Ekstrand, K.; Weintraub, J.A.; Ramos-Gomez, F.; Tagami, J.; Twetman, S.; Tsakos, G.; Ismail, A. Dental caries. Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers 2017, 3, 1–16. Moulis, E.; Chabadel, O.; Goldsmith, M.C.; Canal, P. Prevención de caries y ortodoncia. EMC-Pediatría 2008, 43, 1–9. Marsh, P.D. Are dental diseases examples of ecological catastrophes? Microbiology 2003, 149, 279–294. Teles, R.P.; Teles, F.R.F. Antimicrobial agents used in the control of periodontal biofilms: Effective adjuncts to mechanical plaque control? Braz. Oral Res. 2009, 23, 39–48. Bradshaw, D.J. To the control of oral biofilms. Adv. Dent. Res. 1997, 11, 176–185. Hall-Stoodley, L.; Nistico, L.; Sambanthamoorthy, K.; Dice, B.; Nguyen, D.; Mershon, W.J.; Johnson, C.; Hu, F.Z.; Stoodley, P.; Ehrlich, G.D.; et al. Characterization of biofilm matrix, degradation by DNase treatment and evidence of capsule downregulation in Streptococcus pneumoniae clinical isolates. BMC Microbiol. 2008, 8, 1–16 Darouiche, R.O.; Mansouri, M.D.; Gawande, P.V.; Madhyastha, S. Antimicrobial and antibiofilm efficacy of triclosan and DispersinB® combination. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2009, 64, 88–93 Biswas, A.; Bayer, I.S.; Biris, A.S.; Wang, T.; Dervishi, E.; Faupel, F. Advances in top-down and bottom-up surface nanofabrication: Techniques, applications & future prospects. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2012, 170, 2–27. Arango, S.; Peláez-Vargas, A.; García, C. Coating and surface treatments on orthodontic metallic materials. Coatings 2012, 3, 1–15. Xia, Y.; Whitesides, G. Soft lithography. Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 1998, 28, 153–184. Whitesides, G.M.; Ostuni, E.; Jiang, X.; Ingber, D.E. Soft lithography in biology. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2001, 3, 335–373. Bixler, G.D.; Theiss, A.; Bhushan, B.; Lee, S.C. Anti-fouling properties of microstructured surfaces bio-inspired by rice leaves and butterfly wings. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2014, 419, 114–133 Rocha-Rangel, E. Biomimética: De la naturaleza a la creación humana. Ciencias 2010, 4, 1–8. Bhadra, C.M.; Khanh Truong, V.; Pham, V.T.H.; Al Kobaisi, M.; Seniutinas, G.;Wang, J.Y.; Juodkazis, S.; Crawford, R.J.; Ivanova, E.P. Antibacterial titanium nano-patterned arrays inspired by dragonfly wings. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 16817. Hochbaum, A.; Aizenberg, J. bacteria pattern spontaneously on periodic nanostructure arrays. Nano Lett. 2010, 10, 3717–3721 May, R.M.; Hoffman, M.G.; Sogo, M.J.; Parker, A.E.; O’Toole, G.A.; Brennan, A.B.; Reddy, S.T. Micro-patterned surfaces reduce bacterial colonization and biofilm formation in vitro: Potential for enhancing endotracheal tube designs. Clin. Transl. Med. 2014, 3, 1–8. Chung, K.K.; Schumacher, J.F.; Sampson, E.M.; Burne, R.A.; Antonelli, P.J.; Brennan, A.B. Impact of engineered surface microtopography on biofilm formation of Staphylococcus aureus. Biointerphases 2007, 2, 89–94. Arango-Santander, S.; Gonzalez, C.; Aguilar, A.; Cano, A.; Castro, S.; Sanchez-Garzon, J.; Franco, J. Assessment of streptococcus mutans adhesion to the surface of biomimetically-modified orthodontic archwires. Coatings 2020, 10, 201. Arango-Santander, S.; Freitas, S.; Pelaez-Vargas, A.; Garcia, C. Silica sol-gel patterned surfaces based on dip-pen nanolithography and microstamping: A comparison in resolution and throughput. Key Eng. Mater. 2016, 720, 264–268 Schneider, C.A.; Rasband,W.S.; Eliceiri, K.W. NIH image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis. Nat. Methods 2012, 9, 671–675. Horcas, I.; Fernández, R.; Gómez-Rodríguez, J.M.; Colchero, J.; Gómez-Herrero, J.; Baro, A.M. WSXM: A software for scanning probe microscopy and a tool for nanotechnology. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2007, 78, 1–8. Arango-Santander, S.; Pelaez-Vargas, A.; Freitas, S.; García, C. Surface modification by combination of dip-pen nanolithography and soft lithography for reduction of bacterial adhesion. J. Nanotech. 2018, 2018, 1–10. Naghili, H.; Tajik, H.; Mardani, K.; Razavi Rouhani, S.M.; Ehsani, A.; Zare, P. Validation of drop plate technique for bacterial enumeration by parametric and nonparametric tests. Vet. Res. Forum 2013, 4, 179–183. Kim, J.; Choi, S.O. Superhydrophobicity. Waterproof and water repellent textiles and clothing. In The Textile Institute Book Series; Woodhead Publishing: Sawston, UK, 2018; pp. 267–297. Falde, E.; Yohe, S.; Colson, Y.; Grinstaff, M. Superhydrophobic materials for biomedical applications. Biomaterials 2016, 104, 87–103. Jaggessar, A.; Shahali, H.; Mathew, A.; Yarlagadda, P. Bio-mimicking nano and micro-structured surface fabrication for antibacterial properties in medical implants. J. Nanobiotech. 2017, 15, 1–20. Burton, Z.; Bhushan, B. Surface characterization and adhesion and friction properties of hydrophobic leaf surfaces. Ultramicroscopy 2006, 106, 709–719. Grewal, H.; Cho, I.; Yoon, E. The role of bio-inspired hierarchical structures in wetting. Bioinspiration Biomim. 2015, 10, 026009 Bhushan, B. Biomimetics: Lessons from nature-An overview. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 2009, 367, 1445–1486. Santos, O.; Nylander, T.; Rosmaninho, R.; Rizzo, G.; Yiantsios, S.; Andritsos, N.; Karabelas, A.; Müller-Steinhagen, H.; Melo, L.; Boulangé-Petermann, L.; et al. Modified stainless steel surfaces targeted to reduce fouling—Surface characterization. J. Food Eng. 2004, 64, 63–79. Hosseinalipour, S.M.; Ershad-langroudi, A.; Hayati, A.N.; Nabizade-Haghighi, A.M. Characterization of sol-gel coated 316L stainless steel for biomedical applications. Prog. Org. Coat. 2010, 67, 371–374 Yang, H.; Pi, P.; Cai, Z.Q.;Wen, X.;Wang, X.; Cheng, J.; Yang, Z. Facile preparation of super-hydrophobic and super-oleophilic silica film on stainless steel mesh via sol-gel process. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2010, 256, 4095–4102. Haßler-Grohne, W.; Hüser, D.; Klaus-Peter, J.; Frase, C.; Bosse, H. Current limitations of SEM and AFM metrology for the characterization of 3D nanostructures. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2011, 22, 1–8. Xiang, Y.; Huang, S.; Huang, T.; Dong, A.; Cao, D.; Li, H.; Xue, Y.; Lv, P.; Duan, H. Superrepellency of underwater hierarchical structures on salvinia leaf. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2020, 117, 2282–2287. De-la-Pinta, I.; Cobos, M.; Ibarretxe, J.; Montoya, E.; Eraso, E.; Guraya, T.; Quindós, G. Effect of biomaterials hydrophobicity and roughness on biofilm development. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 2019, 30, 77. Raspor, P.; Bohinc, K.; Draži´c, G.; Fink, R.; Oder, M.; Jevšnik, M.; Nipiˇc, D. Available surface dictates microbial adhesion capacity. Inter. J. Adhes. Adhes. 2014, 50, 265–272. Bohinc, K.; Draži´c, G.; Abram, A.; Jevšnik, M.; Jeršek, B.; Nipiˇc, D.; Kurinˇciˇc, M.; Raspor, P. Metal surface characteristics dictate bacterial adhesion capacity. Inter. J. Adhes. Adhes. 2016, 68, 39–46 Díaz, C.; Schilardi, P.; Salvarezza, R.; Fernández Lorenzo de Mele, M. Nano/microscale order affects the early stages of biofilm formation on metal surfaces. Langmuir 2007, 23, 11206–11210. Diaz, C.; Schilardi, P.; dos Santos Claro, P.C.; Salvarezza, R.C.; Fernandez Lorenzo de Mele, M. Submicron trenches reduce the Pseudomonas fluorescens colonization rate on solid surfaces. Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2009, 1, 136–143 Xu, L.C.; Siedlecki, C.A. Submicron-textured biomaterial surface reduces staphylococcal bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation. Acta Biomater. 2012, 8, 72–81. Satou, J.; Fukunaga, A.; Satou, N.; Shintani, H.; Okuda, K. Streptococcal adherence on various restorative materials. J. Dent. Res. 1988, 67, 588–591 Vadillo-Rodríguez, V.; Guerra-García-Mora, A.; Perera-Costa, D.; Gónzalez-Martín, M.; Fernández-Calderón, M. Bacterial response to spatially organized microtopographic surface patterns with nanometer scale roughness. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 2018, 169, 340–347 Bhardwaj, G.;Webster, T.J. Reduced bacterial growth and increased osteoblast proliferation on titanium with a nanophase TiO2 surface treatment. Inter. J. Nanomed. 2017, 12, 363–369 Carman, M.; Estes, T.; Feinberg, A.; Schumacher, J.; Wilkerson, W.; Wilson, L.; Callow, M.; Callow, J.; Brennan, A. Engineered antifouling microtopographies-Correlating wettability with cell attachment. Biofouling 2006, 22, 11–21. Reddy, S.; Chung, K.; McDaniel, C.; Darouiche, R.; Landman, J.; Brennan, A. Micropatterned surfaces for reducing the risk of catheter-associated urinary tract infection: An in vitro study on the effect of sharklet micropatterned surfaces to inhibit bacterial colonization and migration of uropathogenic escherichia coli. J. Endourol. 2011, 25, 1547–1552 |
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Arango Santander, SantiagoArango Santander, SantiagoSerna, LinaSánchez Garzón, Juliana del PilarFranco Aguirre, John Querubín 112021-07-14T22:06:13Z2021-07-14T22:06:13Z2021-07-092079-6412https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings11070829https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12494/35308Arango-Santander, S.; Serna, L.; Sanchez-Garzon, J.; Franco, J. Evaluation of Streptococcus mutans Adhesion to Stainless Steel Surfaces Modified Using Different Topographies Following a Biomimetic Approach. Coatings 2021, 11, 829. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings11070829Abstract: Bacterial adhesion to surfaces is the first step in biofilm formation, which leads to the development of conditions that may compromise the health status of patients. Surface modification has been proposed to reduce bacterial adhesion to biomaterials. The objective of this work was to assess and compare Streptococcus mutans adhesion to the surface of biomimetically-modified stainless steel using different topographies. Stainless steel plates were modified using a soft lithography technique following a biomimetic approach. The leaves from Colocasia esculenta, Crocosmia aurea and Salvinia molesta were used as surface models. Silica sol was synthesized using the sol-gel method. Following a soft lithography technique, the surface of the leaves were transferred to the surface of the SS plates. Natural and modified surfaces were characterized by means of atomic force microscopy and contact angle. Streptococcus mutans was used to assess bacterial adhesion. Contact angle measurements showed that natural leaves are highly hydrophobic, but such hydrophobicity could not be transferred to the metallic plates. Roughness varied among the leaves and increased after transference for C. esculenta and decreased for C. aurea. In general, two of the surface models used in this investigation showed positive results for reduction of bacterial adhesion (C. aurea and C. esculenta), while the other showed an increase in bacterial adhesion (S. molesta). Therefore, since a biomimetic approach using natural surfaces showed opposite results, careful selection of the surface model needs to be taken into consideration.https://scienti.colciencias.gov.co/cvlac/EnRecursoHumano/inicio.do0000-0002-3113-9895GIOMsantiago.arango@campusucc.edu.colina.sernaga@campusucc.edu.cojuliana.sanchezga@campusucc.edu.cojohn.francoa@campusucc.edu.co11MDPIUniversidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Odontología, Medellín y EnvigadoEspecialización en OrtodonciaMedellínhttps://www.mdpi.com/2079-6412/11/7/829#citeCoatingsRobert, M.; Ezzell, J. Regulatory Affairs for Biomaterials and Medical Devices, 1st ed.; McGraw Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2014.Patel, N.R.; Gohil, P.P. A review on biomaterials: Scope, applications & human anatomy significance. IJETAE 2012, 2, 91–101.Watts, D. Orthodontic adhesive resins. In Orthodontic Material: Scientific and Clinical Aspects, 1st ed.; Thieme Medical Publ Inc.: Stuttgart, Germany, 2001; pp. 202–217.Oh, K.T.; Choo, S.U.; Kim, K.M.; Kim, K.N. A stainless steel bracket for orthodontic application. Eur. J. Orthod. 2005, 27, 237–244.Pérez, L.; Garmas, E. Mini implantes, una opción para el anclaje en ortodoncia. Gac. Médica Espirituana 2010, 12, 1–9.Uribe, G.; Aristiz, J.F. Metales y Alambres De Ortodoncia. In Ortodoncia Teoría y Clínica, 1st ed.; Marcolud: Bogota, Colombia, 2004; pp. 226–245.Ábalos, C. Adhesión bacteriana a biomateriales. Av. Odontoestomatol. 2005, 21, 347–353.Koch, K.; Barthlott,W. Superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic plant surfaces: An inspiration for biomimetic materials. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 2009, 367, 1487–1509.Berg, J.M.; Romoser, A.; Banerjee, N.; Zebda, R.; Sayes, C.M. The relationship between pH and zeta potential of ~30 nm metal oxide nanoparticle suspensions relevant to in vitro toxicological evaluations. Nanotoxicology 2009, 3, 276–283.Kiremitçi-Gümü, M. Microbial adhesion to ionogenic PHEMA, PU and PP implants. Biomaterials 1996, 17, 443–449Abrams, G.A.; Teixeira, A.I.; Nealey, P.F.; Murphy, C.J. Effects of substratum topography on cell behavior. Biomim. Mater. Des. 2002, 33, 91–137.Zhang, X.; Wang, L.; Levänen, E. Superhydrophobic surfaces for the reduction of bacterial adhesion. RSC Adv. 2013, 3, 12003–12020.Pitts, N.B.; Zero, D.T.; Marsh, P.D.; Ekstrand, K.; Weintraub, J.A.; Ramos-Gomez, F.; Tagami, J.; Twetman, S.; Tsakos, G.; Ismail, A. Dental caries. Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers 2017, 3, 1–16.Moulis, E.; Chabadel, O.; Goldsmith, M.C.; Canal, P. Prevención de caries y ortodoncia. EMC-Pediatría 2008, 43, 1–9.Marsh, P.D. Are dental diseases examples of ecological catastrophes? Microbiology 2003, 149, 279–294.Teles, R.P.; Teles, F.R.F. Antimicrobial agents used in the control of periodontal biofilms: Effective adjuncts to mechanical plaque control? Braz. Oral Res. 2009, 23, 39–48.Bradshaw, D.J. To the control of oral biofilms. Adv. Dent. Res. 1997, 11, 176–185.Hall-Stoodley, L.; Nistico, L.; Sambanthamoorthy, K.; Dice, B.; Nguyen, D.; Mershon, W.J.; Johnson, C.; Hu, F.Z.; Stoodley, P.; Ehrlich, G.D.; et al. Characterization of biofilm matrix, degradation by DNase treatment and evidence of capsule downregulation in Streptococcus pneumoniae clinical isolates. BMC Microbiol. 2008, 8, 1–16Darouiche, R.O.; Mansouri, M.D.; Gawande, P.V.; Madhyastha, S. Antimicrobial and antibiofilm efficacy of triclosan and DispersinB® combination. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2009, 64, 88–93Biswas, A.; Bayer, I.S.; Biris, A.S.; Wang, T.; Dervishi, E.; Faupel, F. Advances in top-down and bottom-up surface nanofabrication: Techniques, applications & future prospects. Adv. 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