Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students

Favorable self-efficacy beliefs have been theorized to predict better academic performance, but this association has been untested in dental education. To address this knowledge gap, the aim of this study was to determine the relationship between students’ self-efficacy and academic performance in a...

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Autores:
Mafla Chamorro, Ana Cristina
Divaris, Kimon
Herrera López, Mauricio
Heft, Marc W
Tipo de recurso:
Article of journal
Fecha de publicación:
2019
Institución:
Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia
Repositorio:
Repositorio UCC
Idioma:
OAI Identifier:
oai:repository.ucc.edu.co:20.500.12494/16270
Acceso en línea:
https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12494/16270
Palabra clave:
educación odontología
estudiantes odontología
desempeño académico
dental education
dental students
academic performance
self-efficacy
auto-eficacia
Rights
openAccess
License
Atribución
id COOPER2_b9f767b420bf866cef81524b10053351
oai_identifier_str oai:repository.ucc.edu.co:20.500.12494/16270
network_acronym_str COOPER2
network_name_str Repositorio UCC
repository_id_str
dc.title.spa.fl_str_mv Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students
title Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students
spellingShingle Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students
educación odontología
estudiantes odontología
desempeño académico
dental education
dental students
academic performance
self-efficacy
auto-eficacia
title_short Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students
title_full Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students
title_fullStr Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students
title_full_unstemmed Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students
title_sort Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students
dc.creator.fl_str_mv Mafla Chamorro, Ana Cristina
Divaris, Kimon
Herrera López, Mauricio
Heft, Marc W
dc.contributor.author.none.fl_str_mv Mafla Chamorro, Ana Cristina
Divaris, Kimon
Herrera López, Mauricio
Heft, Marc W
dc.subject.spa.fl_str_mv educación odontología
estudiantes odontología
desempeño académico
topic educación odontología
estudiantes odontología
desempeño académico
dental education
dental students
academic performance
self-efficacy
auto-eficacia
dc.subject.other.spa.fl_str_mv dental education
dental students
academic performance
self-efficacy
auto-eficacia
description Favorable self-efficacy beliefs have been theorized to predict better academic performance, but this association has been untested in dental education. To address this knowledge gap, the aim of this study was to determine the relationship between students’ self-efficacy and academic performance in a Colombian dental school. This cross-sectional study was conducted in 2016 with dental students in all five years at the Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Pasto, Colombia. Prior to application for the measurement of self-efficacy, the psychometric properties of the Academic Behaviors Self-Efficacy Scale (ABSS) were examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Participants’ semester grade point average was used as a measure of academic performance. Of the total 390 students, 320 participated (82% participation rate). A three-factor model for ABSS with the dimensions of communication, attention, and excellence emerged from the CFA, demonstrating optimal fit indices: χ2S-B =468.912; p<0.01; NNFI=0.994; CFI=0.996; RMSEA=0.031 (90% CI 0.021, 0.037); SRMR=0.070; AIC=344.912. Self-efficacy was positively associated with academic performance (rho=0.259; p<0.001). This association was statistically significant only among women (rho=0.361; p<0.001) and those in low SES strata (1-2: rho=0.310; p<0.001) and was highest among students with a heavy (>15 credits) academic course load (rho=0.306; p=0.001). The ABSS demonstrated adequate psychometric properties. Academic self-efficacy was positively associated with academic performance, and this association was most pronounced among women students, those in low SES strata, and those taking a heavy course load.
publishDate 2019
dc.date.issued.none.fl_str_mv 2019-03-25
dc.date.accessioned.none.fl_str_mv 2020-01-23T15:35:26Z
dc.date.available.none.fl_str_mv 2020-01-23T15:35:26Z
dc.type.none.fl_str_mv Artículo
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dc.type.driver.none.fl_str_mv info:eu-repo/semantics/article
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status_str publishedVersion
dc.identifier.issn.spa.fl_str_mv 0022-0337
dc.identifier.uri.spa.fl_str_mv 10.21815/JDE.019.079
dc.identifier.uri.none.fl_str_mv https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12494/16270
dc.identifier.bibliographicCitation.spa.fl_str_mv Mafla, A.C., Divaris, K., Herrera-López, H.M., Heft MW. (2019) Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students. J Dent Educ. 2019;83(6):697-705. Recuperado de: http://www.jdentaled.org/content/83/6/697
identifier_str_mv 0022-0337
10.21815/JDE.019.079
Mafla, A.C., Divaris, K., Herrera-López, H.M., Heft MW. (2019) Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students. J Dent Educ. 2019;83(6):697-705. Recuperado de: http://www.jdentaled.org/content/83/6/697
url https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12494/16270
dc.relation.isversionof.spa.fl_str_mv http://www.jdentaled.org/content/83/6/697
dc.relation.ispartofjournal.spa.fl_str_mv Journal of Dental Education
dc.relation.references.spa.fl_str_mv 1. Bandura, A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review. 1977; 84(2), 191-215.
2. Bandura, A. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1986.
3. Bandura, A. Self-Efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman; 1997.
4. Paunesku D, Walton GM, Romero C, Smith EN, Yeager DS, Dweck CS. Mind-set interventions are a scalable treatment for academic underachievement. Psychological Science. 2015; 26(6): 784–793.
5. Artino AR Jr. Academic self-efficacy: From educational theory to instructional practice. Perspect Med Educ. 2012;1(2):76-85.
6. Barry J, Kitsantas A, Campillo M. Evaluation of regulatory self-efficacy: A social-cognitive perspective. Evaluar. 2005;5(1):1-21. [Article in Spanish]
7. Blanco H, Gastélum G, Chávez A, Ornelas M. Perceived self-efficacy in the academic behavior of female university students. Form Univ. 2012;5(2):17-26. [Article in Spanish]
8. Niño I, Calderón A, Cassaretto M. Personality and academic achievement in university students. Revista de Psicología de la PUCP. 2003;21(1):1-25. [Article in Spanish]
9. Tejedor FJ, García A. Causes for low performance in university students (according to teachers and students themselves). Proposals for improvement within the European Area for Higher Education. Revista de Educación. 2007;342:443-473. [Article in Spanish]
10. Garbanzo V, Guiselle M. Factors associated with academic performance in college students and their relationship with the quality of public higher education. Revista Educación. 2007;31(1):43-63. [Article in Spanish]
11. Illahi BY, Khandai H. Academic Achievements and Study Habits of College Students of District Pulwama. Journal of Education and Practice. 2015;6(31):1-6.
12. Multon KD, Brown SD, Lent RW. Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 1991;38(1):30–38.
13. Honicke T, Broadbent J. The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. Educational Research Review. 2016; 17:63-84.
14. Lane AM, Devonport TJ, Milton KE, Williams LC. Self-efficacy and dissertation performance among sport students. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sports and Tourism Education. 2003;2(2):59–66.
15. Elani HW, Allison PJ, Kumar RA, Mancini L, Lambrou A, Bedos C. A systematic review of stress in dental students. J Dent Educ. 2014;78(2):226-242.
16. Mafla AC, Villa-Torres L, Polychronopoulou A, Polanco H, Moreno-Juvinao V, Parra-Galvis D, Durán C, Villalobos MJ, Divaris K. Burnout prevalence and correlates amongst Colombian dental students: the STRESSCODE study. Eur J Dent Educ. 2015;19(4):242-250.
17. Blanco Vega H, Martínez Marín M, Zueck Enríquez MC, Gastélum Cuadras G. Psychometric analysis of academic behavior self-efficacy scale in first year college students. Actualidades Investigativas en Educación. 2011;11(3):1-27. [Article in Spanish]
18. R Development Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing (Manual & Software). Viena, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing; 2008.
19. Kormaz, S, Goksuluk, D, Zararsiz, G. Mutivariate Normality Tests: Package ‘MVN’ (versión 4.0). [online] cited in 2015. [accessed November 2017]. Retrieved from: http://www.biosoft.hacettepe.edu.tr/MVN/
20. Delgado-Rico E, Carretero-Dios H, Ruch, W. Content validity evidences in test development: An applied perspective. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology. 2012;12(3):449-459.
21. Bentler RM, Wu EJC. EQS for Windows, version 6.2. (Statistical Program for Windows). Encino, CA: Multivariate Software, Inc.; 2012.
21. Bentler RM, Wu EJC. EQS for Windows, version 6.2. (Statistical Program for Windows). Encino, CA: Multivariate Software, Inc.; 2012.
22. Bryant F, Satorra A. Principles and practice of scaled difference Chi-Square testing. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal. 2012;19(3):372-398.
23. Morata-Ramírez M, Holgado-Tello FP. Construct validity of likert scales through confirmatory factor analysis: A simulation study comparing different methods of estimation based on Pearson and polychoric correlations. International Journal of Social Science Studies. 2013;1(1):54-61.
24. Satorra A, Bentler PM. A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika. 2001;66(4):507-514.
25. Hu LT, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal. 1999;6(1):1-55.
26. Elosua-Oliden P, Zumbo BD. Reliability coefficients for ordinal response scales. Psicothema. 2008;20(4):896-901. [Article in Spanish]
27. Lorenzo-Seva U, Ferrando P. FACTOR: A computer program to fit the exploratory factor analysis model. Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments and Computers. 2006; 38(1):88-91.
28. Hair J, Black W, Babin B, Anderson R, Tatham R. Multivariate data analyses. 6th ed. New York (NY): Prentice-Hall; 2005.
29. Bandura A. Self-efficacy. In: Ramachaudran VS (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Human Behavior. Vol. IV. New York: Academic Press;1994. pp. 71-81.
30. Schwarzer R, Fuchs R. Self-efficacy and health behaviors. In: Conner M, Norman P (Eds.). Predicting health behavior: Research and practice with social cognition models. Londres: Open University Press; 1996. pp. 163-196.
31. Bandura A. Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. In: Pajares F, Urdan T (Eds). Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing; 2006. pp. 307–337.
32. Chávez Guerrero A, Peinado Pérez JE, Ornelas Contreras M, Blanco Vega H. Factor structure of an self-efficacy scale in academic behavior on university student’s of engineering. RIDEP. 2013;35 (1):77-93. [Article in Spanish]
33. Lishinski A, Yadav A, Good J, Enbody R. Learning to program: Gender differences and interactive effects of students' motivation, goals, and self-efficacy on performance. In: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research 2016 Aug 25 (pp. 211-220).
34. Han J, Chu X, SongH, Li Y. Social capital, socioeconomic status and self-efficacy. Applied Economics and Finance. 2015;2(1):1-10.
35. Bem DJ. Self-perception theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. 1972;6:1-62.
36. Shih R. Blended learning using video-based blogs: Public speaking for English as a second language students. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology. 2010;26(6):883-897.
37. Marian V, Shook A. The cognitive benefits of being bilingual. Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science. 2012;2012:13.
38. Díaz R, Klingler C. Towards an explanatory model of the interaction between bilingualism and cognitive development. In: Bialystok E, editor. Language processing in bilingual children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1991. pp. 167–192.
39. Quinteros Baumgart C, Billick SB. Positive cognitive effects of bilingualism and multilingualism on cerebral function: A review. Psychiatr Q. 2018;89(2):273-283.
40. Divaris K, Barlow PJ, Chendea SA, Cheong WS, Dounis A, Dragan IF, et al. The academic environment: The students' perspective. Eur J Dent Educ. 2008;12 (Suppl 1):120-30.
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dc.publisher.spa.fl_str_mv Nadeem Karimbux
Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Odontología, Pasto
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dc.publisher.place.spa.fl_str_mv Pasto
institution Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia
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spelling Mafla Chamorro, Ana CristinaDivaris, KimonHerrera López, MauricioHeft, Marc W83 (6)2020-01-23T15:35:26Z2020-01-23T15:35:26Z2019-03-250022-033710.21815/JDE.019.079https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12494/16270Mafla, A.C., Divaris, K., Herrera-López, H.M., Heft MW. (2019) Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental Students. J Dent Educ. 2019;83(6):697-705. Recuperado de: http://www.jdentaled.org/content/83/6/697Favorable self-efficacy beliefs have been theorized to predict better academic performance, but this association has been untested in dental education. To address this knowledge gap, the aim of this study was to determine the relationship between students’ self-efficacy and academic performance in a Colombian dental school. This cross-sectional study was conducted in 2016 with dental students in all five years at the Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Pasto, Colombia. Prior to application for the measurement of self-efficacy, the psychometric properties of the Academic Behaviors Self-Efficacy Scale (ABSS) were examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Participants’ semester grade point average was used as a measure of academic performance. Of the total 390 students, 320 participated (82% participation rate). A three-factor model for ABSS with the dimensions of communication, attention, and excellence emerged from the CFA, demonstrating optimal fit indices: χ2S-B =468.912; p<0.01; NNFI=0.994; CFI=0.996; RMSEA=0.031 (90% CI 0.021, 0.037); SRMR=0.070; AIC=344.912. Self-efficacy was positively associated with academic performance (rho=0.259; p<0.001). This association was statistically significant only among women (rho=0.361; p<0.001) and those in low SES strata (1-2: rho=0.310; p<0.001) and was highest among students with a heavy (>15 credits) academic course load (rho=0.306; p=0.001). The ABSS demonstrated adequate psychometric properties. Academic self-efficacy was positively associated with academic performance, and this association was most pronounced among women students, those in low SES strata, and those taking a heavy course load.Methods, Instruments and Procedures, Statistical Analysis, Results, ABSS Results, Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance, Discussion, Conclusion, Acknowledgements, Referenceshttps://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=00006766160000-0002-2805-7901https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/gruplac/jsp/visualiza/visualizagr.jsp?nro=00000000002911ana.mafla@campusucc.edu.cohttps://scholar.google.com/citations?user=MSFc5YoAAAAJ&hl=es697-705.Nadeem KarimbuxUniversidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Odontología, PastoOdontologíaPastohttp://www.jdentaled.org/content/83/6/697Journal of Dental Education1. Bandura, A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review. 1977; 84(2), 191-215.2. Bandura, A. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1986.3. Bandura, A. Self-Efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman; 1997.4. Paunesku D, Walton GM, Romero C, Smith EN, Yeager DS, Dweck CS. Mind-set interventions are a scalable treatment for academic underachievement. Psychological Science. 2015; 26(6): 784–793.5. Artino AR Jr. Academic self-efficacy: From educational theory to instructional practice. Perspect Med Educ. 2012;1(2):76-85.6. Barry J, Kitsantas A, Campillo M. Evaluation of regulatory self-efficacy: A social-cognitive perspective. Evaluar. 2005;5(1):1-21. [Article in Spanish]7. Blanco H, Gastélum G, Chávez A, Ornelas M. Perceived self-efficacy in the academic behavior of female university students. Form Univ. 2012;5(2):17-26. [Article in Spanish]8. Niño I, Calderón A, Cassaretto M. Personality and academic achievement in university students. Revista de Psicología de la PUCP. 2003;21(1):1-25. [Article in Spanish]9. Tejedor FJ, García A. Causes for low performance in university students (according to teachers and students themselves). Proposals for improvement within the European Area for Higher Education. Revista de Educación. 2007;342:443-473. [Article in Spanish]10. Garbanzo V, Guiselle M. Factors associated with academic performance in college students and their relationship with the quality of public higher education. Revista Educación. 2007;31(1):43-63. [Article in Spanish]11. Illahi BY, Khandai H. Academic Achievements and Study Habits of College Students of District Pulwama. Journal of Education and Practice. 2015;6(31):1-6.12. Multon KD, Brown SD, Lent RW. Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 1991;38(1):30–38.13. Honicke T, Broadbent J. The relation of academic self-efficacy to university student academic performance: A systematic review. Educational Research Review. 2016; 17:63-84.14. Lane AM, Devonport TJ, Milton KE, Williams LC. Self-efficacy and dissertation performance among sport students. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sports and Tourism Education. 2003;2(2):59–66.15. Elani HW, Allison PJ, Kumar RA, Mancini L, Lambrou A, Bedos C. A systematic review of stress in dental students. J Dent Educ. 2014;78(2):226-242.16. Mafla AC, Villa-Torres L, Polychronopoulou A, Polanco H, Moreno-Juvinao V, Parra-Galvis D, Durán C, Villalobos MJ, Divaris K. Burnout prevalence and correlates amongst Colombian dental students: the STRESSCODE study. Eur J Dent Educ. 2015;19(4):242-250.17. Blanco Vega H, Martínez Marín M, Zueck Enríquez MC, Gastélum Cuadras G. Psychometric analysis of academic behavior self-efficacy scale in first year college students. Actualidades Investigativas en Educación. 2011;11(3):1-27. [Article in Spanish]18. R Development Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing (Manual & Software). Viena, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing; 2008.19. Kormaz, S, Goksuluk, D, Zararsiz, G. Mutivariate Normality Tests: Package ‘MVN’ (versión 4.0). [online] cited in 2015. [accessed November 2017]. Retrieved from: http://www.biosoft.hacettepe.edu.tr/MVN/20. Delgado-Rico E, Carretero-Dios H, Ruch, W. Content validity evidences in test development: An applied perspective. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology. 2012;12(3):449-459.21. Bentler RM, Wu EJC. EQS for Windows, version 6.2. (Statistical Program for Windows). Encino, CA: Multivariate Software, Inc.; 2012.21. Bentler RM, Wu EJC. EQS for Windows, version 6.2. (Statistical Program for Windows). Encino, CA: Multivariate Software, Inc.; 2012.22. Bryant F, Satorra A. Principles and practice of scaled difference Chi-Square testing. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal. 2012;19(3):372-398.23. Morata-Ramírez M, Holgado-Tello FP. Construct validity of likert scales through confirmatory factor analysis: A simulation study comparing different methods of estimation based on Pearson and polychoric correlations. International Journal of Social Science Studies. 2013;1(1):54-61.24. Satorra A, Bentler PM. A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika. 2001;66(4):507-514.25. Hu LT, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal. 1999;6(1):1-55.26. Elosua-Oliden P, Zumbo BD. Reliability coefficients for ordinal response scales. Psicothema. 2008;20(4):896-901. [Article in Spanish]27. Lorenzo-Seva U, Ferrando P. FACTOR: A computer program to fit the exploratory factor analysis model. Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments and Computers. 2006; 38(1):88-91.28. Hair J, Black W, Babin B, Anderson R, Tatham R. Multivariate data analyses. 6th ed. New York (NY): Prentice-Hall; 2005.29. Bandura A. Self-efficacy. In: Ramachaudran VS (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Human Behavior. Vol. IV. New York: Academic Press;1994. pp. 71-81.30. Schwarzer R, Fuchs R. Self-efficacy and health behaviors. In: Conner M, Norman P (Eds.). Predicting health behavior: Research and practice with social cognition models. Londres: Open University Press; 1996. pp. 163-196.31. Bandura A. Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. In: Pajares F, Urdan T (Eds). Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing; 2006. pp. 307–337.32. Chávez Guerrero A, Peinado Pérez JE, Ornelas Contreras M, Blanco Vega H. Factor structure of an self-efficacy scale in academic behavior on university student’s of engineering. RIDEP. 2013;35 (1):77-93. [Article in Spanish]33. Lishinski A, Yadav A, Good J, Enbody R. Learning to program: Gender differences and interactive effects of students' motivation, goals, and self-efficacy on performance. In: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research 2016 Aug 25 (pp. 211-220).34. Han J, Chu X, SongH, Li Y. Social capital, socioeconomic status and self-efficacy. Applied Economics and Finance. 2015;2(1):1-10.35. Bem DJ. Self-perception theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. 1972;6:1-62.36. Shih R. Blended learning using video-based blogs: Public speaking for English as a second language students. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology. 2010;26(6):883-897.37. Marian V, Shook A. The cognitive benefits of being bilingual. Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science. 2012;2012:13.38. Díaz R, Klingler C. Towards an explanatory model of the interaction between bilingualism and cognitive development. In: Bialystok E, editor. Language processing in bilingual children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1991. pp. 167–192.39. Quinteros Baumgart C, Billick SB. Positive cognitive effects of bilingualism and multilingualism on cerebral function: A review. Psychiatr Q. 2018;89(2):273-283.40. Divaris K, Barlow PJ, Chendea SA, Cheong WS, Dounis A, Dragan IF, et al. The academic environment: The students' perspective. Eur J Dent Educ. 2008;12 (Suppl 1):120-30.educación odontologíaestudiantes odontologíadesempeño académicodental educationdental studentsacademic performanceself-efficacyauto-eficaciaSelf-Efficacy and Academic Performance in Colombian Dental StudentsArtículohttp://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_6501http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_2df8fbb1http://purl.org/coar/version/c_970fb48d4fbd8a85info:eu-repo/semantics/articleinfo:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersionAtribucióninfo:eu-repo/semantics/openAccesshttp://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2PublicationORIGINALSelf-Efficacy.pdfSelf-Efficacy.pdfapplication/pdf100928https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/670d8891-a065-4958-bb35-9af735a9c88f/downloadcf0953dac9c9e56b8ab44a0c2ccf72dbMD51LICENSElicense.txtlicense.txttext/plain; charset=utf-84334https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/3702ab34-b53b-48b0-89f8-0e32ced3c712/download3bce4f7ab09dfc588f126e1e36e98a45MD52THUMBNAILSelf-Efficacy.pdf.jpgSelf-Efficacy.pdf.jpgGenerated 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