Equine influenza virus: an old known enemy in the Americas
Equine influenza is a highly contagious disease caused by the H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV), which is endemically distributed throughout the world. It infects equids, and interspecies transmission to dogs has been reported. The H3N8 Florida lineage, which is divided into clades 1 and 2, is the m...
- Autores:
-
González Obando, Juliana
Forero, Jorge Eduardo
Zuluaga Cabrera, Angélica M.
Ruiz Sáenz, Julián
- Tipo de recurso:
- Article of investigation
- Fecha de publicación:
- 2023
- Institución:
- Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia
- Repositorio:
- Repositorio UCC
- Idioma:
- OAI Identifier:
- oai:repository.ucc.edu.co:20.500.12494/52293
- Acceso en línea:
- https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12494/52293
- Palabra clave:
- Equine influenza
Vaccines
H3N8
America
Zoonosis
- Rights
- openAccess
- License
- http://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2
| id |
COOPER2_90a6a84da8f3309f46f630e71fbfe4cc |
|---|---|
| oai_identifier_str |
oai:repository.ucc.edu.co:20.500.12494/52293 |
| network_acronym_str |
COOPER2 |
| network_name_str |
Repositorio UCC |
| repository_id_str |
|
| dc.title.none.fl_str_mv |
Equine influenza virus: an old known enemy in the Americas |
| title |
Equine influenza virus: an old known enemy in the Americas |
| spellingShingle |
Equine influenza virus: an old known enemy in the Americas Equine influenza Vaccines H3N8 America Zoonosis |
| title_short |
Equine influenza virus: an old known enemy in the Americas |
| title_full |
Equine influenza virus: an old known enemy in the Americas |
| title_fullStr |
Equine influenza virus: an old known enemy in the Americas |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Equine influenza virus: an old known enemy in the Americas |
| title_sort |
Equine influenza virus: an old known enemy in the Americas |
| dc.creator.fl_str_mv |
González Obando, Juliana Forero, Jorge Eduardo Zuluaga Cabrera, Angélica M. Ruiz Sáenz, Julián |
| dc.contributor.author.none.fl_str_mv |
González Obando, Juliana Forero, Jorge Eduardo Zuluaga Cabrera, Angélica M. Ruiz Sáenz, Julián |
| dc.subject.none.fl_str_mv |
Equine influenza Vaccines H3N8 America Zoonosis |
| topic |
Equine influenza Vaccines H3N8 America Zoonosis |
| description |
Equine influenza is a highly contagious disease caused by the H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV), which is endemically distributed throughout the world. It infects equids, and interspecies transmission to dogs has been reported. The H3N8 Florida lineage, which is divided into clades 1 and 2, is the most representative lineage in the Americas. The EIV infects the respiratory system, affecting the ciliated epithelial cells and preventing the elimination of foreign bodies and substances. Certain factors related to the disease, such as an outdated vaccination plan, age, training, and close contact with other animals, favor the presentation of equine influenza. This review focuses on the molecular, pathophysiological, and epidemiological characteristics of EIV in the Americas to present updated information to achieve prevention and control of the virus. We also discuss the need for monitoring the disease, the use of vaccines, and the appropriate application of those biologicals, among other biosecurity measures that are important for the control of the virus. |
| publishDate |
2023 |
| dc.date.accessioned.none.fl_str_mv |
2023-08-02T22:02:38Z |
| dc.date.available.none.fl_str_mv |
2023-08-02T22:02:38Z |
| dc.date.issued.none.fl_str_mv |
2023-08-02 |
| dc.type.none.fl_str_mv |
Artículos Científicos |
| dc.type.coar.none.fl_str_mv |
http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_2df8fbb1 |
| dc.type.coarversion.none.fl_str_mv |
http://purl.org/coar/version/c_970fb48d4fbd8a85 |
| dc.type.driver.none.fl_str_mv |
info:eu-repo/semantics/article |
| dc.type.version.none.fl_str_mv |
info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion |
| format |
http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_2df8fbb1 |
| status_str |
publishedVersion |
| dc.identifier.issn.none.fl_str_mv |
2076-393X |
| dc.identifier.uri.none.fl_str_mv |
doi.org/10.3390/ vaccines10101718 https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12494/52293 |
| dc.identifier.bibliographicCitation.none.fl_str_mv |
Gonzalez-Obando, J.; Forero, J.E.; Zuluaga-Cabrera, A.M.; Ruiz-Saenz, J. Equine Influenza Virus: An Old Known Enemy in the Americas. Vaccines 2022, 10, 1718. https://doi.org/10.3390/ vaccines10101718 |
| identifier_str_mv |
2076-393X doi.org/10.3390/ vaccines10101718 Gonzalez-Obando, J.; Forero, J.E.; Zuluaga-Cabrera, A.M.; Ruiz-Saenz, J. Equine Influenza Virus: An Old Known Enemy in the Americas. Vaccines 2022, 10, 1718. https://doi.org/10.3390/ vaccines10101718 |
| url |
https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12494/52293 |
| dc.relation.isversionof.none.fl_str_mv |
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/10/10/1718 |
| dc.relation.ispartofjournal.none.fl_str_mv |
Vaccines |
| dc.relation.references.none.fl_str_mv |
Singh, R.K.; Dhama, K.; Karthik, K.; Khandia, R.; Munjal, A.; Khurana, S.K.; Chakraborty, S.; Malik, Y.S.; Virmani, N.; Singh, R.; et al. A Comprehensive Review on Equine Influenza Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathobiology, Advances in Developing Diagnostics, Vaccines, and Control Strategies. Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 1941 Larson, K.R.L.; Heil, G.L.; Chambers, T.M.; Capuano, A.; White, S.K.; Gray, G.C. Serological evidence of equine influenza infections among persons with horse exposure, Iowa. J. Clin. Virol. 2015, 67, 78–83 Cullinane, A.; Newton, J.R. Equine influenza—A global perspective. Vet. Microbiol. 2013, 167, 205–214. Rosanowski, S.; Cogger, N.; Rogers, C.; Stevenson, M. Evaluating the effectiveness of strategies for the control of equine influenza virus in the New Zealand equine population. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2016, 63, 321–332. Garner, M.; Scanlan, W.; Cowled, B.; Carroll, A. Regaining Australia’s equine influenza-free status: A national perspective. Aust. Vet. J. 2011, 89, 169–173. Oladunni, F.S.; OseOladunni, F.S.; Oseni, S.O.; Martinez-Sobrido, L.; Chambers, T.M. Equine Influenza Virus and Vaccines. Viruses 2021, 13, 1657.ni, S.O.; Martinez-Sobrido, L.; Chambers, T.M. Equine Influenza Virus and Vaccines. Viruses 2021, 13, 1657. Amat, J.A.R.; Patton, V.; Chauché, C.; Goldfarb, D.; Crispell, J.; Gu, Q.; Coburn, A.M.; Gonzalez, G.; Mair, D.; Tong, L.; et al. Long-term adaptation following influenza A virus host shifts results in increased within-host viral fitness due to higher replication rates, broader dissemination within the respiratory epithelium and reduced tissue damage. PLoS Pathog. 2021, 17, e1010174 Sovinova, O.; Tumova, F.; Pouska, J.; Nemec, J. Isolation of a virus causing respiratory diseases in horses. Acta Virol. 1958, 1, 52–61 Waddell, G.; Teigland, M.; Sigel, M. A new influenza virus associated with equine respiratory disease. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1963, 143, 587–590. Kwasnik, M.; Gora, I.M.; Zmudzinski, J.F.; Rola, J.; Polak, M.P.; Rozek, W. Genetic Analysis of the M Gene of Equine Influenza Virus Strains Isolated in Poland, in the Context of the Asian-like Group Formation. J. Vet. Res. 2018, 62, 405–412. Krammer, F.; Smith, G.J.D.; Fouchier, R.A.M.; Peiris, M.; Kedzierska, K.; Doherty, P.C.; Palese, P.; Shaw, M.L.; Treanor, J.; Webster, R.G.; et al. Influenza. Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers 2018, 4, 3 Baigent, S.J.; McCauley, J.W. Influenza type A in humans, mammals and birds: Determinants of virus virulence, host-range and interspecies transmission. Bioessays 2003, 25, 657–671. Cauldwell, A.V.; Long, J.S.; Moncorgé, O.; Barclay, W.S. Viral determinants of influenza A virus host range. J. Gen. Virol. 2014, 95, 1193–1210. Yu, J.; Li, F.; Wang, D. The first decade of research advances in influenza D virus. J. Gen. Virol. 2021, 102, jgv001529. Skelton, R.M.; Huber, V.C. Comparing Influenza Virus Biology for Understanding Influenza D Virus. Viruses 2022, 14, 1036 Nedland, H.; Wollman, J.; Sreenivasan, C.; Quast, M.; Singrey, A.; Fawcett, L.; Christopher-Hennings, J.; Nelson, E.; Kaushik, R.S.; Wang, D.; et al. Serological evidence for the co-circulation of two lineages of influenza D viruses in equine populations of the Midwest United States. Zoonoses Public Health 2018, 65, e148–e154. Boukharta, M.; Kasmi, Y.; Zakham, F.; El Amri, H.; Ennaji, M.M. Prediction of genetic mutations of equine influenza virus related to adaptive determination nuclear export ribonucleoprotein complex. J. Basic Appl. Zool. 2019, 80, 25. Szewczyk, B.; Bieńkowska-Szewczyk, K.; Król, E. Introduction to molecular biology of influenza a viruses. Acta Biochim. Pol. 2014, 61, 397–401 Scholtens, R.G.; Steele, J.H.; Dowdle, W.R.; Wilma, B.Y.; Robinson, R.Q. U.S. Epizootic of Equine Influenza, 1963. Public Health Rep. 1964, 79, 393–402 Daly, J.M.; MacRae, S.; Newton, J.R.; Wattrang, E.; Elton, D.M. Equine influenza: A review of an unpredictable virus. Vet. J. 2011, 189, 7–14. Tůmová, B. Equine influenza—A segment in influenza virus ecology. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 1980, 3, 45–59. Taubenberger, J.K.; Morens, D.M. The Pathology of Influenza Virus Infections. Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis. 2008, 3, 499–522 Matsuoka, Y.; Matsumae, H.; Katoh, M.; Eisfeld, A.J.; Neumann, G.; Hase, T.; Ghosh, S.; Shoemaker, J.E.; Lopes, T.J.S.; Watanabe, T.; et al. A comprehensive map of the influenza A virus replication cycle. BMC Syst. Biol. 2013, 7, 97. Zhao, L.; Xia, H.; Huang, J.; Zheng, Y.; Liu, C.; Su, J.; Ping, J. Features of Nuclear Export Signals of NS2 Protein of Influenza D Virus. Viruses 2020, 12, 1100. Cao, S.; Liu, X.; Yu, M.; Li, J.; Jia, X.; Bi, Y.; Sun, L.; Gao, G.F.; Liu, W. A Nuclear Export Signal in the Matrix Protein of Influenza A Virus Is Required for Efficient Virus Replication. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 4883–4891. van Maanen, C.; Cullinane, A. Equine influenza virus infections: An update. Vet. Q. 2002, 24, 79–94. Vollmer, A.H.; Gebre, M.S.; Barnard, D.L. Serum amyloid A (SAA) is an early biomarker of influenza virus disease in BALB/c, C57BL/2, Swiss-Webster, and DBA.2 mice. Antivir. Res. 2016, 133, 196–207. Muranaka, M.; Yamanaka, T.; Katayama, Y.; Niwa, H.; Oku, K.; Matsumura, T.; Oyamada, T. Time-related Pathological Changes in Horses Experimentally Inoculated with Equine Influenza A Virus. J. Equine Sci. Chambers, T.M. A Brief Introduction to Equine Influenza and Equine Influenza Viruses. In Animal Influenza Virus: Methods and Protocols; Spackman, E., Ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2020; pp. 355–360 Jurado-Tarifa, E.; Daly, J.M.; Pérez-Écija, A.; Barba-Recreo, M.; Mendoza, F.J.; Al-Shuwaikh, A.M.; García-Bocanegra, I. Epidemiological survey of equine influenza in Andalusia, Spain. Prev. Vet. Med. 2018, 151, 52–56. Gildea, S.; Arkins, S.; Cullinane, A. A comparative antibody study of the potential susceptibility of Thoroughbred and non-Thoroughbred horse populations in Ireland to equine influenza virus. Influenza Other Respir. Viruses 2010, 4, 363–372. Watson, J.; Daniels, P.; Kirkland, P.; Carroll, A.; Jeggo, M. The 2007 outbreak of equine influenza in Australia: Lessons learned for international trade in horses. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2011, 30, 87–93. Landolt, G.A. Equine Influenza Virus. Vet. Clin. North Am. Equine Pract. 2014, 30, 507–522. Hinshaw, V.S.; Olsen, C.W.; Dybdahl-Sissoko, N.; Evans, D. Apoptosis: A mechanism of cell killing by influenza A and B viruses. J. Virol. 1994, 68, 3667–3673 Lin, C.; Holland, R.E.; Donofrio, J.C.; McCoy, M.H.; Tudor, L.R.; Chambers, T.M. Caspase activation in equine influenza virus induced apoptotic cell death. Vet. Microbiol. 2002, 84, 357–365. Chen, X.; Liu, S.; Goraya, M.U.; Maarouf, M.; Huang, S.; Chen, J.-L. Host immune response to influenza A virus infection. Front. Immunol. 2018, 9, 320. World Organisation for Animal Health. Equine influenza (infection with equine influenza virus). In Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals; World Organisation for Animal Health: Paris, France, 2019. Firestone, S.M.; Schemann, K.A.; Toribio, J.-A.L.; Ward, M.P.; Dhand, N.K. A case-control study of risk factors for equine influenza spread onto horse premises during the 2007 epidemic in Australia. Prev. Vet. Med. 2011, 100, 53–63. Spence, K.L.; O’Sullivan, T.L.; Poljak, Z.; Greer, A.L. Using a computer simulation model to examine the impact of biosecurity measures during a facility-level outbreak of equine influenza. Can. J. Vet. Res. 2018, 82, 89–96 Mena, J.; Brito, B.; Moreira, R.; Tadich, T.; Gonzalez, I.; Cruces, J.; Ortega, R.; van Bakel, H.; Rathnasinghe, R.; Pizarro-Lucero, J.; et al. Reemergence of H3N8 Equine Influenza A virus in Chile. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2018, 65, 1408–1415. Favaro, P.F.; Reischak, D.; Brandao, P.; Villalobos, E.; Cunha, E.; Lara, M.; Benvenga, G.; Dias, R.; Mori, E.; Richtzenhain, L. Comparison among three different serological methods for the detection of equine influenza virus infection. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2017, 36, 789–798. Favaro, P.F.; Fernandes, W.R.; Reischak, D.; Brandão, P.E.; Silva, S.O.d.S.; Richtzenhain, L.J. Evolution of equine influenza viruses (H3N8) during a Brazilian outbreak. Braz. J. Microbiol. 2018, 49, 336–346. Castro, E.; Perez, R.; Rodriguez, S.; Bassetti, L.; Negro, R.; Vidal, R. Epidemiological and virological findings during an outbreak of equine influenza in Uruguay in 2018. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2019, 38, 737–749 Perglione, C.O.; Gildea, S.; Rimondi, A.; Miño, S.; Vissani, A.; Carossino, M.; Cullinane, A.; Barrandeguy, M. Epidemiological and virological findings during multiple outbreaks of equine influenza in S outh A merica in 2012. Influenza Other Respir. Viruses 2016, 10, 37–46. Diaz-Mendez, A.; Viel, L.; Hewson, J.; Doig, P.; Carman, S.; Chambers, T.; Tiwari, A.; Dewey, C. Surveillance of equine respiratory viruses in Ontario. Can. J. Vet. Res. 2010, 74, 271–278. Olguin Perglione, C.; Golemba, M.D.; Torres, C.; Barrandeguy, M. Molecular Epidemiology and Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of the H3N8 Equine Influenza Virus in South America. Pathogens 2016, 5, 61. Olguin-Perglione, C.; Vissani, M.A.; Alamos, F.; Tordoya, M.S.; Barrandeguy, M. Multifocal outbreak of equine influenza in vaccinated horses in Argentina in 2018: Epidemiological aspects and molecular characterisation of the involved virus strains. Equine Vet. J. 2020, 52, 420–427. Gaidamaka, M.; Vaganov, G.; Dromashko, A.; Shvetskava, B.; Fyadina, D. Disease of the upper respiratory tract in horses following the human influenza epidemic of 1957. Bull. World Health Organ. 1959, 20, 505. Xie, T.; Anderson, B.D.; Daramragchaa, U.; Chuluunbaatar, M.; Gray, G.C. A Review of Evidence that Equine Influenza Viruses Are Zoonotic. Pathogens 2016, 5, 50. Pusterla, N.; Kass, P.H.; Mapes, S.; Wademan, C.; Akana, N.; Barnett, C.; MacKenzie, C.; Vaala, W. Voluntary surveillance program for equine influenza virus in the United States from 2010 to 2013. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2015, 29, 417–422. Khurelbaatar, N.; Krueger, W.S.; Heil, G.L.; Darmaa, B.; Ulziimaa, D.; Tserennorov, D.; Baterdene, A.; Anderson, B.D.; Gray, G.C. Little evidence of avian or equine influenza virus infection among a cohort of Mongolian adults with animal exposures, 2010–2011. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e85616. Khurelbaatar, N.; Krueger, W.S.; Heil, G.L.; Darmaa, B.; Ulziimaa, D.; Tserennorov, D.; Baterdene, A.; Anderson, B.D.; Gray, G.C. Sparse evidence for equine or avian influenza virus infections among Mongolian adults with animal exposures. Influenza Other Respir. Viruses 2013, 7, 1246–1250. Burnell, F.J.; Holmes, M.A.; Roiko, A.H.; Lowe, J.B.; Heil, G.L.; White, S.K.; Gray, G.C. Little evidence of human infection with equine influenza during the 2007 epizootic, Queensland, Australia. J. Clin. Virol. 2014, 59, 100–103. Berríos, E.P. Influenza equina en Chile (1963–1992): Un posible caso en un ser humano. Rev. Chil. De Infectología 2005, 22, 47–50. Kuchipudi, S.V.; Nelli, R.K.; Gontu, A.; Satyakumar, R.; Surendran Nair, M.; Subbiah, M. Sialic acid receptors: The key to solving the enigma of zoonotic virus spillover. Viruses 2021, 13, 262. Whitlock, F.; Murcia, P.R.; Newton, J.R. A Review on Equine Influenza from a Human Influenza Perspective. Viruses 2022, 14, 1312 Payungporn, S.; Crawford, P.C.; Kouo, T.S.; Chen, L.-m.; Pompey, J.; Castleman, W.L.; Dubovi, E.J.; Katz, J.M.; Donis, R.O. Influenza A virus (H3N8) in dogs with respiratory disease, Florida. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 902 Daly, J.M.; Blunden, A.S.; MacRae, S.; Miller, J.; Bowman, S.J.; Kolodziejek, J.; Nowotny, N.; Smith, K.C. Transmission of equine influenza virus to English foxhounds. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 461 Gonzalez, G.; Marshall, J.F.; Morrell, J.; Robb, D.; McCauley, J.W.; Perez, D.R.; Parrish, C.R.; Murcia, P.R. Infection and Pathogenesis of Canine, Equine, and Human Influenza Viruses in Canine Tracheas. J. Virol. 2014, 88, 9208–9219. Zhu, H.; Damdinjav, B.; Gonzalez, G.; Patron, L.V.; Ramirez-Mendoza, H.; AmatI, J.A.R.; Crispell, J.; Parr, Y.A.; Hammond, T.-a.; Shiilegdamba, E.; et al. Absence of adaptive evolution is the main barrier against influenza emergence in horses in Asia despite frequent virus interspecies transmission from wild birds. PLoS Pathog. 2019, 15, e1007531. Kirkland, P.D.; Finlaison, D.S.; Crispe, E.; Hurt, A.C. Influenza virus transmission from horses to dogs, Australia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010, 16, 699. Sreenivasan, C.C.; Jandhyala, S.S.; Luo, S.; Hause, B.M.; Thomas, M.; Knudsen, D.E.; Leslie-Steen, P.; Clement, T.; Reedy, S.E.; Chambers, T.M. Phylogenetic analysis and characterization of a sporadic isolate of equine influenza A H3N8 from an unvaccinated horse in 2015. Viruses 2018, 10, 31. Aguirre-Ezkauriatza, E.J.; Karlsson, E.A.; Freiden, P.; Schultz-Cherry, S.; Flores-Gutierrez, S.G.H.; Zertuche-Guerra, M.I. Seroepidemiological survey of equine influenza a H3N8 in horses from the eastern region of the United States-Mexico border. J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 2012, 11, 2250–2255. Aharonson-Raz, K.; Davidson, I.; Porat, Y.; Altory, A.; Klement, E.; Steinman, A. Seroprevalence and rate of infection of equine influenza virus (H3N8 and H7N7) and equine herpesvirus (1 and 4) in the horse population in Israel. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2014, 34, 828–832. Perkins, G.A.; Wagner, B. The development of equine immunity: Current knowledge on immunology in the young horse. Equine Vet. J. 2015, 47, 267–274. Williams, C.A. Horse Species Symposium: The effect of oxidative stress during exercise in the horse1. J. Anim. Sci. 2016, 94, 4067–4075. Dominguez, M.; Münstermann, S.; de Guindos, I.; Timoney, P. Equine disease events resulting from international horse movements: Systematic review and lessons learned. Equine Vet. J. 2016, 48, 641–653. Alves Beuttemmüller, E.; Woodward, A.; Rash, A.; dos Santos Ferraz, L.E.; Fernandes Alfieri, A.; Alfieri, A.A.; Elton, D. Characterisation of the epidemic strain of H3N8 equine influenza virus responsible for outbreaks in South America in 2012. Virol. J. 2016, 13, 45. Woodward, A.L.; Rash, A.S.; Blinman, D.; Bowman, S.; Chambers, T.M.; Daly, J.M.; Damiani, A.; Joseph, S.; Lewis, N.; McCauley, J.W. Development of a surveillance scheme for equine influenza in the UK and characterisation of viruses isolated in Europe, Dubai and the USA from 2010–2012. Vet. Microbiol. 2014, 169, 113–127. Reemers, S.; Sonnemans, D.; Horspool, L.; van Bommel, S.; Cao, Q.; van de Zande, S. Determining Equine Influenza Virus Vaccine Efficacy—The Specific Contribution of Strain Versus Other Vaccine Attributes. Vaccines 2020, 8, 501 Chambers, T.M. Equine Influenza. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. 2022, 12, 257–282 Murcia, P.R.; Wood, J.L.N.; Holmes, E.C. Genome-Scale Evolution and Phylodynamics of Equine H3N8 Influenza A Virus. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 5312–5322. Paillot, R.; Marcillaud Pitel, C.; D’Ablon, X.; Pronost, S. Equine Vaccines: How, When and Why? Report of the Vaccinology Session, French Equine Veterinarians Association, 2016, Reims. Vaccines 2017, 5, 46. May, T. Vaccines as community-focused therapy. Expert Rev. Vaccines 2003, 2, 341–343 Moreira, R.; García, A.; Ahumada, C.; Badía, C.; Suárez, P.; Yangari, B.; Aguayo, C.; Herrera, J.; Espejo, G.; Pinto, E. Report of 2018 equine influenza outbreak in Chile. Austral. J. Vet. Sci. 2019, 51, 1 Plata-Hipólito, C.B.; Cedillo-Rosales, S.; Obregón-Macías, N.; Hernández-Luna, C.E.; Rodríguez-Padilla, C.; Tamez-Guerra, R.S.; Contreras-Cordero, J.F. Genetic and serologic surveillance of canine (CIV) and equine (EIV) influenza virus in Nuevo León State, México. PeerJ 2019, 7, e8239. Fretz, P.; Babiuk, L.; McLaughlin, B. Equine respiratory disease on the Western Canadian racetracks. Can. Vet. J. 1979, 20, 58. Morley, P.S.; Townsend, H.G.; Bogdan, J.R.; Haines, D.M. Descriptive epidemiologic study of disease associated with influenza virus infections during three epidemics in horses. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2000, 216, 535–544. Berríos Etchegaray, P. Influenza Equina: Actualización; Boletin Vaterinario Oficial: Santiago, Chile, 2012; p. 8 Karlsson, E.A.; Ciuoderis, K.; Freiden, P.J.; Seufzer, B.; Jones, J.C.; Johnson, J.; Parra, R.; Gongora, A.; Cardenas, D.; Barajas, D. Prevalence and characterization of influenza viruses in diverse species in Los Llanos, Colombia: Prevalence of influenza viruses in Colombia. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2013, 2, 1–10. Loroño-Pino, M.A.; Farfan-Ale, J.A.; Garcia-Rejon, J.E.; Lin, M.; Rosado-Paredes, E.; Puerto, F.I.; Bates, A.; Root, J.J.; Franklin, A.B.; Sullivan, H.J.; et al. Antibodies to influenza and West Nile viruses in horses in Mexico. Vet. Rec. 2010, 166, 22–23. Brister, H.; Barnum, S.M.; Reedy, S.; Chambers, T.M.; Pusterla, N. Validation of two multiplex real-time PCR assays based on single nucleotide polymorphisms of the HA1 gene of equine influenza A virus in order to differentiate between clade 1 and clade 2 Florida sublineage isolates. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2019, 31, 137–141. Pusterla, N.; James, K.; Barnum, S.; Bain, F.; Barnett, D.C.; Chappell, D.; Gaughan, E.; Craig, B.; Schneider, C.; Vaala, W. Frequency of Detection and Prevalence Factors Associated with Common Respiratory Pathogens in Equids with Acute Onset of Fever and/or Respiratory Signs (2008–2021). Pathogens 2022, 11, 759. Lee, K.; Pusterla, N.; Barnum, S.M.; Lee, D.-H.; Martínez-López, B. Genome-informed characterisation of antigenic drift in the haemagglutinin gene of equine influenza strains circulating in the United States from 2012 to 2017. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2022, 69, e52–e63. Lee, K.; Pusterla, N.; Barnum, S.M.; Lee, D.H.; Martinez-Lopez, B. Investigation of cross-regional spread and evolution of equine influenza H3N8 at US and global scales using Bayesian phylogeography based on balanced subsampling. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2022, 69, e1734–e1748 Vallone, E.; Canto, R.; Bauza, C.; Somma, R.; Tosi, H. Localization of the Aequi/Uruguay/540/1963 influenza virus in the chorioatlantoic membranes by the immunofluorescence method. An. Fac. Med. Univ. Repub. Montev. Urug. 1965, 50, 107–113. Equine influenza outbreaks in the UK: A practical approach to prevention. Vet. Rec. 2019, 185, 198–200 Gildea, S.; Lyons, P.; Lyons, R.; Gahan, J.; Garvey, M.; Cullinane, A. Annual booster vaccination and the risk of equine influenza to Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet. J. 2020, 52, 509–515. Karagianni, A.E.; Kurian, D.; Cillán-Garcia, E.; Eaton, S.L.; Wishart, T.M.; Pirie, R.S. Training associated alterations in equine respiratory immunity using a multiomics comparative approach. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 427 Miller, A.B.; Harris, P.A.; Barker, V.D.; Adams, A.A. Short-term transport stress and supplementation alter immune function in aged horses. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0254139 Milwid, R.M.; O’Sullivan, T.L.; Poljak, Z.; Laskowski, M.; Greer, A.L. Comparing the effects of non-homogenous mixing patterns on epidemiological outcomes in equine populations: A mathematical modelling study. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 3227. Garner, M.; Cowled, B.; East, I.; Moloney, B.; Kung, N. Evaluating the effectiveness of early vaccination in the control and eradication of equine influenza—A modelling approach. Prev. Vet. Med. 2011, 99, 15–27 Fougerolle, S.; Legrand, L.; Garrett, D.; Birand, I.; Foursin, M.; D’ablon, X.; Bayssat, P.; Newton, R.J.; Pronost, S.; Paillot, R. Influential factors inducing suboptimal humoral response to vector-based influenza immunisation in thoroughbred foals. Vaccine 2016, 34, 3787–3795. Dionísio, L.; Medeiros, F.; Pequito, M.; Faustino-Rocha, A.I. Equine influenza: A comprehensive review from etiology to treatment. Anim. Health Res. Rev. 2021, 22, 56–71. Paillot, R. A Systematic Review of Recent Advances in Equine Influenza Vaccination. Vaccines 2014, 2, 797–831 Allkofer, A.; Garvey, M.; Ryan, E.; Lyons, R.; Ryan, M.; Lukaseviciute, G.; Walsh, C.; Venner, M.; Cullinane, A. Primary vaccination in foals: A comparison of the serological response to equine influenza and equine herpesvirus vaccines administered concurrently or 2 weeks apart. Arch. Virol. 2021, 166, 571–579. Wilson, A.; Pinchbeck, G.; Dean, R.; McGowan, C. Equine influenza vaccination in the UK: Current practices may leave horses with suboptimal immunity. Equine Vet. J. 2021, 53, 1004–1014. Schemann, K.; Firestone, S.M.; Taylor, M.R.; Toribio, J.A.L.M.L.; Ward, M.P.; Dhand, N.K. Horse owners’/managers’ perceptions about effectiveness of biosecurity measures based on their experiences during the 2007 equine influenza outbreak in Australia. Prev. Vet. Med. 2012, 106, 97–107. Slater, J.; Borchers, K.; Chambers, T.; Cullinane, A.; Duggan, V.; Elton, D.; Legrand, L.; Paillot, R.; Fortier, G. Report of the International Equine Influenza Roundtable Expert Meeting at Le Touquet, Normandy, February 2013. Equine Vet. J. 2014, 46, 645–650. Gildea, S.; Garvey, M.; Lyons, P.; Lyons, R.; Gahan, J.; Walsh, C.; Cullinane, A. Multifocal equine influenza outbreak with vaccination breakdown in thoroughbred racehorses. Pathogens 2018, 7, 43. |
| dc.rights.accessrights.none.fl_str_mv |
info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess |
| dc.rights.coar.none.fl_str_mv |
http://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2 |
| eu_rights_str_mv |
openAccess |
| rights_invalid_str_mv |
http://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2 |
| dc.format.extent.none.fl_str_mv |
17 - 18 p. |
| dc.coverage.temporal.none.fl_str_mv |
10(10) |
| dc.publisher.none.fl_str_mv |
MDPI Grupo de Investigación en Ciencias Animales—GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga 680002, Colombia |
| dc.publisher.program.none.fl_str_mv |
Medicina veterinaria y zootecnia |
| dc.publisher.place.none.fl_str_mv |
Bucaramanga |
| publisher.none.fl_str_mv |
MDPI Grupo de Investigación en Ciencias Animales—GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga 680002, Colombia |
| institution |
Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia |
| bitstream.url.fl_str_mv |
https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/b2020f9f-5dd2-419c-b4ef-98c46bd9b4a5/download https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/8d84d364-a1c6-42c1-bf5a-234b730d6acc/download https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/8a706abb-2b7a-4716-8d10-78d00566c78f/download https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/5ee6fe89-1894-4b05-89ed-d1dd9874724c/download https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/925c0ff1-4214-405b-bdb9-b144b5d556c7/download https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/34506323-b7c2-489b-a2c2-36d74f194926/download https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/b1c5d9b3-e2f2-40db-aefd-683e498c8961/download |
| bitstream.checksum.fl_str_mv |
a73bfcbf851f9c2797ad1a9a60a8feb9 4e77948a442210f6562c6a4d727aebc0 3bce4f7ab09dfc588f126e1e36e98a45 99a98112b7573535930e9ce6ceb780c9 b87397b9d61764d47e2516dc60dbcb27 188e986067a2b66252f154f8798e21f6 bbc145b6fe1c922e0fc8f916889c7d17 |
| bitstream.checksumAlgorithm.fl_str_mv |
MD5 MD5 MD5 MD5 MD5 MD5 MD5 |
| repository.name.fl_str_mv |
Repositorio Institucional Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia |
| repository.mail.fl_str_mv |
bdigital@metabiblioteca.com |
| _version_ |
1811564874436706304 |
| spelling |
González Obando, JulianaForero, Jorge EduardoZuluaga Cabrera, Angélica M.Ruiz Sáenz, Julián 10(10)2023-08-02T22:02:38Z2023-08-02T22:02:38Z2023-08-022076-393Xdoi.org/10.3390/ vaccines10101718https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12494/52293Gonzalez-Obando, J.; Forero, J.E.; Zuluaga-Cabrera, A.M.; Ruiz-Saenz, J. Equine Influenza Virus: An Old Known Enemy in the Americas. Vaccines 2022, 10, 1718. https://doi.org/10.3390/ vaccines10101718Equine influenza is a highly contagious disease caused by the H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV), which is endemically distributed throughout the world. It infects equids, and interspecies transmission to dogs has been reported. The H3N8 Florida lineage, which is divided into clades 1 and 2, is the most representative lineage in the Americas. The EIV infects the respiratory system, affecting the ciliated epithelial cells and preventing the elimination of foreign bodies and substances. Certain factors related to the disease, such as an outdated vaccination plan, age, training, and close contact with other animals, favor the presentation of equine influenza. This review focuses on the molecular, pathophysiological, and epidemiological characteristics of EIV in the Americas to present updated information to achieve prevention and control of the virus. We also discuss the need for monitoring the disease, the use of vaccines, and the appropriate application of those biologicals, among other biosecurity measures that are important for the control of the virus.https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0000153095https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1447-1458https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/gruplac/jsp/visualiza/visualizagr.jsp?nro=00000000000695julian.ruizs@campusucc.edu.cohttps://scholar.google.com/citations?user=o3Y7mZwAAAAJ&hl=es17 - 18 p.MDPIGrupo de Investigación en Ciencias Animales—GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga 680002, ColombiaMedicina veterinaria y zootecniaBucaramangahttps://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/10/10/1718VaccinesSingh, R.K.; Dhama, K.; Karthik, K.; Khandia, R.; Munjal, A.; Khurana, S.K.; Chakraborty, S.; Malik, Y.S.; Virmani, N.; Singh, R.; et al. A Comprehensive Review on Equine Influenza Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathobiology, Advances in Developing Diagnostics, Vaccines, and Control Strategies. Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 1941Larson, K.R.L.; Heil, G.L.; Chambers, T.M.; Capuano, A.; White, S.K.; Gray, G.C. Serological evidence of equine influenza infections among persons with horse exposure, Iowa. J. Clin. Virol. 2015, 67, 78–83Cullinane, A.; Newton, J.R. Equine influenza—A global perspective. Vet. Microbiol. 2013, 167, 205–214.Rosanowski, S.; Cogger, N.; Rogers, C.; Stevenson, M. Evaluating the effectiveness of strategies for the control of equine influenza virus in the New Zealand equine population. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2016, 63, 321–332.Garner, M.; Scanlan, W.; Cowled, B.; Carroll, A. Regaining Australia’s equine influenza-free status: A national perspective. Aust. Vet. J. 2011, 89, 169–173.Oladunni, F.S.; OseOladunni, F.S.; Oseni, S.O.; Martinez-Sobrido, L.; Chambers, T.M. Equine Influenza Virus and Vaccines. Viruses 2021, 13, 1657.ni, S.O.; Martinez-Sobrido, L.; Chambers, T.M. Equine Influenza Virus and Vaccines. Viruses 2021, 13, 1657.Amat, J.A.R.; Patton, V.; Chauché, C.; Goldfarb, D.; Crispell, J.; Gu, Q.; Coburn, A.M.; Gonzalez, G.; Mair, D.; Tong, L.; et al. Long-term adaptation following influenza A virus host shifts results in increased within-host viral fitness due to higher replication rates, broader dissemination within the respiratory epithelium and reduced tissue damage. PLoS Pathog. 2021, 17, e1010174Sovinova, O.; Tumova, F.; Pouska, J.; Nemec, J. Isolation of a virus causing respiratory diseases in horses. Acta Virol. 1958, 1, 52–61Waddell, G.; Teigland, M.; Sigel, M. A new influenza virus associated with equine respiratory disease. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1963, 143, 587–590.Kwasnik, M.; Gora, I.M.; Zmudzinski, J.F.; Rola, J.; Polak, M.P.; Rozek, W. Genetic Analysis of the M Gene of Equine Influenza Virus Strains Isolated in Poland, in the Context of the Asian-like Group Formation. J. Vet. Res. 2018, 62, 405–412.Krammer, F.; Smith, G.J.D.; Fouchier, R.A.M.; Peiris, M.; Kedzierska, K.; Doherty, P.C.; Palese, P.; Shaw, M.L.; Treanor, J.; Webster, R.G.; et al. Influenza. Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers 2018, 4, 3Baigent, S.J.; McCauley, J.W. Influenza type A in humans, mammals and birds: Determinants of virus virulence, host-range and interspecies transmission. Bioessays 2003, 25, 657–671.Cauldwell, A.V.; Long, J.S.; Moncorgé, O.; Barclay, W.S. Viral determinants of influenza A virus host range. J. Gen. Virol. 2014, 95, 1193–1210.Yu, J.; Li, F.; Wang, D. The first decade of research advances in influenza D virus. J. Gen. Virol. 2021, 102, jgv001529.Skelton, R.M.; Huber, V.C. Comparing Influenza Virus Biology for Understanding Influenza D Virus. Viruses 2022, 14, 1036Nedland, H.; Wollman, J.; Sreenivasan, C.; Quast, M.; Singrey, A.; Fawcett, L.; Christopher-Hennings, J.; Nelson, E.; Kaushik, R.S.; Wang, D.; et al. Serological evidence for the co-circulation of two lineages of influenza D viruses in equine populations of the Midwest United States. Zoonoses Public Health 2018, 65, e148–e154.Boukharta, M.; Kasmi, Y.; Zakham, F.; El Amri, H.; Ennaji, M.M. Prediction of genetic mutations of equine influenza virus related to adaptive determination nuclear export ribonucleoprotein complex. J. Basic Appl. Zool. 2019, 80, 25.Szewczyk, B.; Bieńkowska-Szewczyk, K.; Król, E. Introduction to molecular biology of influenza a viruses. Acta Biochim. Pol. 2014, 61, 397–401Scholtens, R.G.; Steele, J.H.; Dowdle, W.R.; Wilma, B.Y.; Robinson, R.Q. U.S. Epizootic of Equine Influenza, 1963. Public Health Rep. 1964, 79, 393–402Daly, J.M.; MacRae, S.; Newton, J.R.; Wattrang, E.; Elton, D.M. Equine influenza: A review of an unpredictable virus. Vet. J. 2011, 189, 7–14.Tůmová, B. Equine influenza—A segment in influenza virus ecology. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 1980, 3, 45–59.Taubenberger, J.K.; Morens, D.M. The Pathology of Influenza Virus Infections. Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis. 2008, 3, 499–522Matsuoka, Y.; Matsumae, H.; Katoh, M.; Eisfeld, A.J.; Neumann, G.; Hase, T.; Ghosh, S.; Shoemaker, J.E.; Lopes, T.J.S.; Watanabe, T.; et al. A comprehensive map of the influenza A virus replication cycle. BMC Syst. Biol. 2013, 7, 97.Zhao, L.; Xia, H.; Huang, J.; Zheng, Y.; Liu, C.; Su, J.; Ping, J. Features of Nuclear Export Signals of NS2 Protein of Influenza D Virus. Viruses 2020, 12, 1100.Cao, S.; Liu, X.; Yu, M.; Li, J.; Jia, X.; Bi, Y.; Sun, L.; Gao, G.F.; Liu, W. A Nuclear Export Signal in the Matrix Protein of Influenza A Virus Is Required for Efficient Virus Replication. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 4883–4891.van Maanen, C.; Cullinane, A. Equine influenza virus infections: An update. Vet. Q. 2002, 24, 79–94.Vollmer, A.H.; Gebre, M.S.; Barnard, D.L. Serum amyloid A (SAA) is an early biomarker of influenza virus disease in BALB/c, C57BL/2, Swiss-Webster, and DBA.2 mice. Antivir. Res. 2016, 133, 196–207.Muranaka, M.; Yamanaka, T.; Katayama, Y.; Niwa, H.; Oku, K.; Matsumura, T.; Oyamada, T. Time-related Pathological Changes in Horses Experimentally Inoculated with Equine Influenza A Virus. J. Equine Sci.Chambers, T.M. A Brief Introduction to Equine Influenza and Equine Influenza Viruses. In Animal Influenza Virus: Methods and Protocols; Spackman, E., Ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2020; pp. 355–360Jurado-Tarifa, E.; Daly, J.M.; Pérez-Écija, A.; Barba-Recreo, M.; Mendoza, F.J.; Al-Shuwaikh, A.M.; García-Bocanegra, I. Epidemiological survey of equine influenza in Andalusia, Spain. Prev. Vet. Med. 2018, 151, 52–56.Gildea, S.; Arkins, S.; Cullinane, A. A comparative antibody study of the potential susceptibility of Thoroughbred and non-Thoroughbred horse populations in Ireland to equine influenza virus. Influenza Other Respir. Viruses 2010, 4, 363–372.Watson, J.; Daniels, P.; Kirkland, P.; Carroll, A.; Jeggo, M. The 2007 outbreak of equine influenza in Australia: Lessons learned for international trade in horses. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2011, 30, 87–93.Landolt, G.A. Equine Influenza Virus. Vet. Clin. North Am. Equine Pract. 2014, 30, 507–522.Hinshaw, V.S.; Olsen, C.W.; Dybdahl-Sissoko, N.; Evans, D. Apoptosis: A mechanism of cell killing by influenza A and B viruses. J. Virol. 1994, 68, 3667–3673Lin, C.; Holland, R.E.; Donofrio, J.C.; McCoy, M.H.; Tudor, L.R.; Chambers, T.M. Caspase activation in equine influenza virus induced apoptotic cell death. Vet. Microbiol. 2002, 84, 357–365.Chen, X.; Liu, S.; Goraya, M.U.; Maarouf, M.; Huang, S.; Chen, J.-L. Host immune response to influenza A virus infection. Front. Immunol. 2018, 9, 320.World Organisation for Animal Health. Equine influenza (infection with equine influenza virus). In Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals; World Organisation for Animal Health: Paris, France, 2019.Firestone, S.M.; Schemann, K.A.; Toribio, J.-A.L.; Ward, M.P.; Dhand, N.K. A case-control study of risk factors for equine influenza spread onto horse premises during the 2007 epidemic in Australia. Prev. Vet. Med. 2011, 100, 53–63.Spence, K.L.; O’Sullivan, T.L.; Poljak, Z.; Greer, A.L. Using a computer simulation model to examine the impact of biosecurity measures during a facility-level outbreak of equine influenza. Can. J. Vet. Res. 2018, 82, 89–96Mena, J.; Brito, B.; Moreira, R.; Tadich, T.; Gonzalez, I.; Cruces, J.; Ortega, R.; van Bakel, H.; Rathnasinghe, R.; Pizarro-Lucero, J.; et al. Reemergence of H3N8 Equine Influenza A virus in Chile. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2018, 65, 1408–1415.Favaro, P.F.; Reischak, D.; Brandao, P.; Villalobos, E.; Cunha, E.; Lara, M.; Benvenga, G.; Dias, R.; Mori, E.; Richtzenhain, L. Comparison among three different serological methods for the detection of equine influenza virus infection. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2017, 36, 789–798.Favaro, P.F.; Fernandes, W.R.; Reischak, D.; Brandão, P.E.; Silva, S.O.d.S.; Richtzenhain, L.J. Evolution of equine influenza viruses (H3N8) during a Brazilian outbreak. Braz. J. Microbiol. 2018, 49, 336–346.Castro, E.; Perez, R.; Rodriguez, S.; Bassetti, L.; Negro, R.; Vidal, R. Epidemiological and virological findings during an outbreak of equine influenza in Uruguay in 2018. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2019, 38, 737–749Perglione, C.O.; Gildea, S.; Rimondi, A.; Miño, S.; Vissani, A.; Carossino, M.; Cullinane, A.; Barrandeguy, M. Epidemiological and virological findings during multiple outbreaks of equine influenza in S outh A merica in 2012. Influenza Other Respir. Viruses 2016, 10, 37–46.Diaz-Mendez, A.; Viel, L.; Hewson, J.; Doig, P.; Carman, S.; Chambers, T.; Tiwari, A.; Dewey, C. Surveillance of equine respiratory viruses in Ontario. Can. J. Vet. Res. 2010, 74, 271–278.Olguin Perglione, C.; Golemba, M.D.; Torres, C.; Barrandeguy, M. Molecular Epidemiology and Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of the H3N8 Equine Influenza Virus in South America. Pathogens 2016, 5, 61.Olguin-Perglione, C.; Vissani, M.A.; Alamos, F.; Tordoya, M.S.; Barrandeguy, M. Multifocal outbreak of equine influenza in vaccinated horses in Argentina in 2018: Epidemiological aspects and molecular characterisation of the involved virus strains. Equine Vet. J. 2020, 52, 420–427.Gaidamaka, M.; Vaganov, G.; Dromashko, A.; Shvetskava, B.; Fyadina, D. Disease of the upper respiratory tract in horses following the human influenza epidemic of 1957. Bull. World Health Organ. 1959, 20, 505.Xie, T.; Anderson, B.D.; Daramragchaa, U.; Chuluunbaatar, M.; Gray, G.C. A Review of Evidence that Equine Influenza Viruses Are Zoonotic. Pathogens 2016, 5, 50.Pusterla, N.; Kass, P.H.; Mapes, S.; Wademan, C.; Akana, N.; Barnett, C.; MacKenzie, C.; Vaala, W. Voluntary surveillance program for equine influenza virus in the United States from 2010 to 2013. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2015, 29, 417–422.Khurelbaatar, N.; Krueger, W.S.; Heil, G.L.; Darmaa, B.; Ulziimaa, D.; Tserennorov, D.; Baterdene, A.; Anderson, B.D.; Gray, G.C. Little evidence of avian or equine influenza virus infection among a cohort of Mongolian adults with animal exposures, 2010–2011. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e85616.Khurelbaatar, N.; Krueger, W.S.; Heil, G.L.; Darmaa, B.; Ulziimaa, D.; Tserennorov, D.; Baterdene, A.; Anderson, B.D.; Gray, G.C. Sparse evidence for equine or avian influenza virus infections among Mongolian adults with animal exposures. Influenza Other Respir. Viruses 2013, 7, 1246–1250.Burnell, F.J.; Holmes, M.A.; Roiko, A.H.; Lowe, J.B.; Heil, G.L.; White, S.K.; Gray, G.C. Little evidence of human infection with equine influenza during the 2007 epizootic, Queensland, Australia. J. Clin. Virol. 2014, 59, 100–103.Berríos, E.P. Influenza equina en Chile (1963–1992): Un posible caso en un ser humano. Rev. Chil. De Infectología 2005, 22, 47–50.Kuchipudi, S.V.; Nelli, R.K.; Gontu, A.; Satyakumar, R.; Surendran Nair, M.; Subbiah, M. Sialic acid receptors: The key to solving the enigma of zoonotic virus spillover. Viruses 2021, 13, 262.Whitlock, F.; Murcia, P.R.; Newton, J.R. A Review on Equine Influenza from a Human Influenza Perspective. Viruses 2022, 14, 1312Payungporn, S.; Crawford, P.C.; Kouo, T.S.; Chen, L.-m.; Pompey, J.; Castleman, W.L.; Dubovi, E.J.; Katz, J.M.; Donis, R.O. Influenza A virus (H3N8) in dogs with respiratory disease, Florida. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 902Daly, J.M.; Blunden, A.S.; MacRae, S.; Miller, J.; Bowman, S.J.; Kolodziejek, J.; Nowotny, N.; Smith, K.C. Transmission of equine influenza virus to English foxhounds. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 461Gonzalez, G.; Marshall, J.F.; Morrell, J.; Robb, D.; McCauley, J.W.; Perez, D.R.; Parrish, C.R.; Murcia, P.R. Infection and Pathogenesis of Canine, Equine, and Human Influenza Viruses in Canine Tracheas. J. Virol. 2014, 88, 9208–9219.Zhu, H.; Damdinjav, B.; Gonzalez, G.; Patron, L.V.; Ramirez-Mendoza, H.; AmatI, J.A.R.; Crispell, J.; Parr, Y.A.; Hammond, T.-a.; Shiilegdamba, E.; et al. Absence of adaptive evolution is the main barrier against influenza emergence in horses in Asia despite frequent virus interspecies transmission from wild birds. PLoS Pathog. 2019, 15, e1007531.Kirkland, P.D.; Finlaison, D.S.; Crispe, E.; Hurt, A.C. Influenza virus transmission from horses to dogs, Australia. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010, 16, 699.Sreenivasan, C.C.; Jandhyala, S.S.; Luo, S.; Hause, B.M.; Thomas, M.; Knudsen, D.E.; Leslie-Steen, P.; Clement, T.; Reedy, S.E.; Chambers, T.M. Phylogenetic analysis and characterization of a sporadic isolate of equine influenza A H3N8 from an unvaccinated horse in 2015. Viruses 2018, 10, 31.Aguirre-Ezkauriatza, E.J.; Karlsson, E.A.; Freiden, P.; Schultz-Cherry, S.; Flores-Gutierrez, S.G.H.; Zertuche-Guerra, M.I. Seroepidemiological survey of equine influenza a H3N8 in horses from the eastern region of the United States-Mexico border. J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 2012, 11, 2250–2255.Aharonson-Raz, K.; Davidson, I.; Porat, Y.; Altory, A.; Klement, E.; Steinman, A. Seroprevalence and rate of infection of equine influenza virus (H3N8 and H7N7) and equine herpesvirus (1 and 4) in the horse population in Israel. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2014, 34, 828–832.Perkins, G.A.; Wagner, B. The development of equine immunity: Current knowledge on immunology in the young horse. Equine Vet. J. 2015, 47, 267–274.Williams, C.A. Horse Species Symposium: The effect of oxidative stress during exercise in the horse1. J. Anim. Sci. 2016, 94, 4067–4075.Dominguez, M.; Münstermann, S.; de Guindos, I.; Timoney, P. Equine disease events resulting from international horse movements: Systematic review and lessons learned. Equine Vet. J. 2016, 48, 641–653.Alves Beuttemmüller, E.; Woodward, A.; Rash, A.; dos Santos Ferraz, L.E.; Fernandes Alfieri, A.; Alfieri, A.A.; Elton, D. Characterisation of the epidemic strain of H3N8 equine influenza virus responsible for outbreaks in South America in 2012. Virol. J. 2016, 13, 45.Woodward, A.L.; Rash, A.S.; Blinman, D.; Bowman, S.; Chambers, T.M.; Daly, J.M.; Damiani, A.; Joseph, S.; Lewis, N.; McCauley, J.W. Development of a surveillance scheme for equine influenza in the UK and characterisation of viruses isolated in Europe, Dubai and the USA from 2010–2012. Vet. Microbiol. 2014, 169, 113–127.Reemers, S.; Sonnemans, D.; Horspool, L.; van Bommel, S.; Cao, Q.; van de Zande, S. Determining Equine Influenza Virus Vaccine Efficacy—The Specific Contribution of Strain Versus Other Vaccine Attributes. Vaccines 2020, 8, 501Chambers, T.M. Equine Influenza. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. 2022, 12, 257–282Murcia, P.R.; Wood, J.L.N.; Holmes, E.C. Genome-Scale Evolution and Phylodynamics of Equine H3N8 Influenza A Virus. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 5312–5322.Paillot, R.; Marcillaud Pitel, C.; D’Ablon, X.; Pronost, S. Equine Vaccines: How, When and Why? Report of the Vaccinology Session, French Equine Veterinarians Association, 2016, Reims. Vaccines 2017, 5, 46.May, T. Vaccines as community-focused therapy. Expert Rev. Vaccines 2003, 2, 341–343Moreira, R.; García, A.; Ahumada, C.; Badía, C.; Suárez, P.; Yangari, B.; Aguayo, C.; Herrera, J.; Espejo, G.; Pinto, E. Report of 2018 equine influenza outbreak in Chile. Austral. J. Vet. Sci. 2019, 51, 1Plata-Hipólito, C.B.; Cedillo-Rosales, S.; Obregón-Macías, N.; Hernández-Luna, C.E.; Rodríguez-Padilla, C.; Tamez-Guerra, R.S.; Contreras-Cordero, J.F. Genetic and serologic surveillance of canine (CIV) and equine (EIV) influenza virus in Nuevo León State, México. PeerJ 2019, 7, e8239.Fretz, P.; Babiuk, L.; McLaughlin, B. Equine respiratory disease on the Western Canadian racetracks. Can. Vet. J. 1979, 20, 58.Morley, P.S.; Townsend, H.G.; Bogdan, J.R.; Haines, D.M. Descriptive epidemiologic study of disease associated with influenza virus infections during three epidemics in horses. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2000, 216, 535–544.Berríos Etchegaray, P. Influenza Equina: Actualización; Boletin Vaterinario Oficial: Santiago, Chile, 2012; p. 8Karlsson, E.A.; Ciuoderis, K.; Freiden, P.J.; Seufzer, B.; Jones, J.C.; Johnson, J.; Parra, R.; Gongora, A.; Cardenas, D.; Barajas, D. Prevalence and characterization of influenza viruses in diverse species in Los Llanos, Colombia: Prevalence of influenza viruses in Colombia. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2013, 2, 1–10.Loroño-Pino, M.A.; Farfan-Ale, J.A.; Garcia-Rejon, J.E.; Lin, M.; Rosado-Paredes, E.; Puerto, F.I.; Bates, A.; Root, J.J.; Franklin, A.B.; Sullivan, H.J.; et al. Antibodies to influenza and West Nile viruses in horses in Mexico. Vet. Rec. 2010, 166, 22–23.Brister, H.; Barnum, S.M.; Reedy, S.; Chambers, T.M.; Pusterla, N. Validation of two multiplex real-time PCR assays based on single nucleotide polymorphisms of the HA1 gene of equine influenza A virus in order to differentiate between clade 1 and clade 2 Florida sublineage isolates. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2019, 31, 137–141.Pusterla, N.; James, K.; Barnum, S.; Bain, F.; Barnett, D.C.; Chappell, D.; Gaughan, E.; Craig, B.; Schneider, C.; Vaala, W. Frequency of Detection and Prevalence Factors Associated with Common Respiratory Pathogens in Equids with Acute Onset of Fever and/or Respiratory Signs (2008–2021). Pathogens 2022, 11, 759.Lee, K.; Pusterla, N.; Barnum, S.M.; Lee, D.-H.; Martínez-López, B. Genome-informed characterisation of antigenic drift in the haemagglutinin gene of equine influenza strains circulating in the United States from 2012 to 2017. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2022, 69, e52–e63.Lee, K.; Pusterla, N.; Barnum, S.M.; Lee, D.H.; Martinez-Lopez, B. Investigation of cross-regional spread and evolution of equine influenza H3N8 at US and global scales using Bayesian phylogeography based on balanced subsampling. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2022, 69, e1734–e1748Vallone, E.; Canto, R.; Bauza, C.; Somma, R.; Tosi, H. Localization of the Aequi/Uruguay/540/1963 influenza virus in the chorioatlantoic membranes by the immunofluorescence method. An. Fac. Med. Univ. Repub. Montev. Urug. 1965, 50, 107–113.Equine influenza outbreaks in the UK: A practical approach to prevention. Vet. Rec. 2019, 185, 198–200Gildea, S.; Lyons, P.; Lyons, R.; Gahan, J.; Garvey, M.; Cullinane, A. Annual booster vaccination and the risk of equine influenza to Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet. J. 2020, 52, 509–515.Karagianni, A.E.; Kurian, D.; Cillán-Garcia, E.; Eaton, S.L.; Wishart, T.M.; Pirie, R.S. Training associated alterations in equine respiratory immunity using a multiomics comparative approach. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 427Miller, A.B.; Harris, P.A.; Barker, V.D.; Adams, A.A. Short-term transport stress and supplementation alter immune function in aged horses. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0254139Milwid, R.M.; O’Sullivan, T.L.; Poljak, Z.; Laskowski, M.; Greer, A.L. Comparing the effects of non-homogenous mixing patterns on epidemiological outcomes in equine populations: A mathematical modelling study. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 3227.Garner, M.; Cowled, B.; East, I.; Moloney, B.; Kung, N. Evaluating the effectiveness of early vaccination in the control and eradication of equine influenza—A modelling approach. Prev. Vet. Med. 2011, 99, 15–27Fougerolle, S.; Legrand, L.; Garrett, D.; Birand, I.; Foursin, M.; D’ablon, X.; Bayssat, P.; Newton, R.J.; Pronost, S.; Paillot, R. Influential factors inducing suboptimal humoral response to vector-based influenza immunisation in thoroughbred foals. Vaccine 2016, 34, 3787–3795.Dionísio, L.; Medeiros, F.; Pequito, M.; Faustino-Rocha, A.I. Equine influenza: A comprehensive review from etiology to treatment. Anim. Health Res. Rev. 2021, 22, 56–71.Paillot, R. A Systematic Review of Recent Advances in Equine Influenza Vaccination. Vaccines 2014, 2, 797–831Allkofer, A.; Garvey, M.; Ryan, E.; Lyons, R.; Ryan, M.; Lukaseviciute, G.; Walsh, C.; Venner, M.; Cullinane, A. Primary vaccination in foals: A comparison of the serological response to equine influenza and equine herpesvirus vaccines administered concurrently or 2 weeks apart. Arch. Virol. 2021, 166, 571–579.Wilson, A.; Pinchbeck, G.; Dean, R.; McGowan, C. Equine influenza vaccination in the UK: Current practices may leave horses with suboptimal immunity. Equine Vet. J. 2021, 53, 1004–1014.Schemann, K.; Firestone, S.M.; Taylor, M.R.; Toribio, J.A.L.M.L.; Ward, M.P.; Dhand, N.K. Horse owners’/managers’ perceptions about effectiveness of biosecurity measures based on their experiences during the 2007 equine influenza outbreak in Australia. Prev. Vet. Med. 2012, 106, 97–107.Slater, J.; Borchers, K.; Chambers, T.; Cullinane, A.; Duggan, V.; Elton, D.; Legrand, L.; Paillot, R.; Fortier, G. Report of the International Equine Influenza Roundtable Expert Meeting at Le Touquet, Normandy, February 2013. Equine Vet. J. 2014, 46, 645–650.Gildea, S.; Garvey, M.; Lyons, P.; Lyons, R.; Gahan, J.; Walsh, C.; Cullinane, A. Multifocal equine influenza outbreak with vaccination breakdown in thoroughbred racehorses. Pathogens 2018, 7, 43.Equine influenzaVaccinesH3N8AmericaZoonosisEquine influenza virus: an old known enemy in the AmericasArtículos Científicoshttp://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_2df8fbb1http://purl.org/coar/version/c_970fb48d4fbd8a85info:eu-repo/semantics/articleinfo:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersioninfo:eu-repo/semantics/openAccesshttp://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_abf2PublicationORIGINAL2023_equine_influenza_virus.pdf2023_equine_influenza_virus.pdfArticuloapplication/pdf2321065https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/b2020f9f-5dd2-419c-b4ef-98c46bd9b4a5/downloada73bfcbf851f9c2797ad1a9a60a8feb9MD512023_equine_influenza_virus-FormatoLicenciaUso.pdf2023_equine_influenza_virus-FormatoLicenciaUso.pdfLicencia de usoapplication/pdf207793https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/8d84d364-a1c6-42c1-bf5a-234b730d6acc/download4e77948a442210f6562c6a4d727aebc0MD52LICENSElicense.txtlicense.txttext/plain; charset=utf-84334https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/8a706abb-2b7a-4716-8d10-78d00566c78f/download3bce4f7ab09dfc588f126e1e36e98a45MD53TEXT2023_equine_influenza_virus.pdf.txt2023_equine_influenza_virus.pdf.txtExtracted texttext/plain74650https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/5ee6fe89-1894-4b05-89ed-d1dd9874724c/download99a98112b7573535930e9ce6ceb780c9MD542023_equine_influenza_virus-FormatoLicenciaUso.pdf.txt2023_equine_influenza_virus-FormatoLicenciaUso.pdf.txtExtracted texttext/plain5918https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/925c0ff1-4214-405b-bdb9-b144b5d556c7/downloadb87397b9d61764d47e2516dc60dbcb27MD56THUMBNAIL2023_equine_influenza_virus.pdf.jpg2023_equine_influenza_virus.pdf.jpgGenerated Thumbnailimage/jpeg15812https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/34506323-b7c2-489b-a2c2-36d74f194926/download188e986067a2b66252f154f8798e21f6MD552023_equine_influenza_virus-FormatoLicenciaUso.pdf.jpg2023_equine_influenza_virus-FormatoLicenciaUso.pdf.jpgGenerated Thumbnailimage/jpeg13283https://repository.ucc.edu.co/bitstreams/b1c5d9b3-e2f2-40db-aefd-683e498c8961/downloadbbc145b6fe1c922e0fc8f916889c7d17MD5720.500.12494/52293oai:repository.ucc.edu.co:20.500.12494/522932024-08-09 12:27:20.894open.accesshttps://repository.ucc.edu.coRepositorio Institucional Universidad Cooperativa de Colombiabdigital@metabiblioteca.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 |